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GRADED SUPPLEMENTARY READING SERIES 


HEROES OF HISTORY 


BY 

IDA PRENTICE WHITCOMB 

AUTHOR OF "a BUNCH OF WILD FLOWERS FOR THE CHILDREN” 

‘‘young people’s story of art”; ‘‘young people’s 
STORY OF music”; ‘‘YOUNG PEOPLE’S STORY 
OF AMERICAN LITERATURE.” 


REVISED EDITION 



NEW YORK 

CHARLES E. MERRILL CO 




Copyright, 1904 , by 
MAYNARD, MERRILL, & CO. 

Copyright,' 1919 , by 
CHARLES E. MERRILL CO. 

18 ] 



) I 


APR 19 1920 


'©Cl. A 5 66568 


j 


INTRODUCTION 


Modern courses of Study for the grades include the 
names of famous men of all times and of many natiou- 
alities. In the sketches of their lives, giyen in the 
following pages, the aim has been, so far as possible, 
to bring out those biographical and dramatic elements 
which make the strongest appeal to the child’s atten'r 
tion. In mythology and in Greek and Roman history, 
the topics follow one another so closely in thought that 
a slight connection has been made. But no attempt 
has been made to secure such a linking between the 
others. 

Few dates have been us^d and few -loug names ; but 
the seriousness of the subjects has demanded that some 
be introduced. Geographical questions haye been pro- 
posed in some of the lessons, whenever it has seemed 
desirable. In order to make the chapters hior^ viyid 
it is suggested that a map be kept before the class.;^* ” 

There is in the schools to-day a growing recoghitloh 
of the necessity of developing in the pupils, a love for 
the study of history. If this book succeeds in bring- 
ing the boys and girls who read it into friendship with 
some of the world’s heroes; if it kindles a desire to 
know more of their lives and times by further reading, 
and so teaches the “love of books”; if it makes his- 
tory seem like real life, and inspires any boy or girl 
to imitate its noblest actors in courage, fidelity, and 
patriotism, its purpose will be fulfilled. 

IDA PRENTICE WHITCOMB, ^ 


3 


4 


COURSE OF STUDY 

Historical and biographical narratives. Ethical lessons. 
SYLLABUS 

Historical and biographical narratives are taken from 
Oriental and European history. Typical names are sug- 
gested, but it is not presumed that all can be considered in 
a half year. Only a brief sketch of those studied is ex- 
pected. Those which are considered of greatest importance 
in the periods covered for the purpose of this course are 
printed in capitals. 

China, CONFUCIUS; India, BUDDHA; Egypt, 
KAMESES II, Cheops; Assyria, SABDANAPALUS ; 
Babylonia, NEBUCHADNEZZAR; Hebrews, MOSES, 
Solomon; Phoenicia, HIRAM. ^ 

Greece: Jason, HERCULES, HOMER, Achilles, Ulys- 
ses, Theseus, Lycurgus, DELPHIC ORACLE, Olympic 
Games, SOLON, Croesus, MARATHON, THERMOPY- 
L^, Salamis, SOCRATES, Alcibiades, DEMOSTHENES, 
ALEXANDER. 

Rome: ^neas, ROMULUS, Cincinnatus, PYRRHUS, 
HANNIBAL, Cato, THE GRACCHI, C^SAR, Spartacus, 
Cicero, Nero, POMPEII, Constantine. 

Europe in Mediaeval Times: ATTILA, NIBELUNGEN- 
LIED, CLOVIS, Augustine, MOHAMMED, Charles Martel, 
CHARLEMAGNE, Roland, Peter the Hermit, BARBA- 
ROSSA, Rienzi, THE BLACK PRINCE, JOAN OF ARC, 
Marco Polo, Vasco da Gama. 

Europe in Modern Times : Galileo, William the Silent, 
GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS, PETER THE GREAT, Fred- 
erick the Great, The French Revolution, NAPOLEON, 
Garibaldi, Kossuth, BISMARCK. 


CONTENTS 


China and Confucius 

India 

Buddha 

Egypt 

Cheops 

Rameses II 

Assyria 

Sardanapalus II . . . 

Babylonia 

Nebuchadnezzar . . . 

Hebrews 

Moses 

Solomon 

Phcenicia — Hiram . . . 

Greece 

Jason 

Hercules 

Homer 

Achilles 

Ulysses 

Theseus 

Lycurgus 

Delphic Oracle .... 
Olympic Games .... 
Solon 

Cr(£SUS 


rAGX 


Marathon 118 

Thermopyl^ 128 

Salamis 135 

Athens and Socrates . 140 

Alcibiades 149 

Demosthenes 154 

Alexander the Great . 161 

Rome 174 

^Eneas 178 

Romulus 183 

CORIOLANUS, CiNCINNATUS, 

Camillus 190 

Pyrrhus 198 

Hannibal 203 

Cato 210 

The Gracchi 213 

Spartacus 218 

Julius Ca<:sar 223 

Cicero 236 

Age of Twelve C^sars 

AND Five Good Em- 
perors 242 

Pompeii 250 

Constantine the Great. 253 
Alaric — Attila — Gen- 
SERic 256 


PAGE 

7 

13 

17 

22 

29 

33 

38 

41 

44 

46 

50 

57 

62 

69 

73 

81 

85 

88 

93 

95 

100 

102 

106 

108 

110 

116 


6 


6 


The Nibelungexlied . . 

Clovis 

Augustine 

Mohammed ...... 

Charles Martel . ... 

Charlemagne 

Roland 

Peter the Hermit . . . 
Frederick Barbarossa . 

Rienzi 

Black Prince . . . . . 
Joan of Arc . . . . . 


pAQa 

Marco Polo 335 

Vasco da Gama .... 342 
Galileo 349 


William the Silent . . 357 
Gustavus Adolphus . . 366 
Peter the Great . . . 376 
The French Revolution 386 
Napoleon Bonaparte . . 400 

Garibaldi ...... 414 

Kossuth . 422 

Heroes of the Flying Age 429 
Marshal Foch .... 438 


PAGE 

265 

273 

277 

281 

289 

291 

299 

303 

308 

314 

318 

326- 


HEROES OE HISTORY 


PART I. ANCIENT HISTORY 

China and Confucius 

We begin our study of history in far-away 
China. In olden times, the Chinese drew many 
maps of the world ; but, instead of showing it as a 
round globe, they always made it long and nar- 
row, and right in the middle was their owii-5 
country. 

China is a very interesting country to study 
about, for the Chinese are so dilferent from any 
other people in the world. They have never 
wished anything new, but have always liked to 10 
live and dress just as their fathers and mothers 
lived and dressed before them. Yet some of 
our most useful inventions have come from the 
Chinese. 

A Chinese princess was the first to unravel the 16 
cocoon of the silkworm, and to weave the thread 
into silk. As long ago as twelve hundred years 
‘ before Christ, the Chinese made bronze pieces of 

T 


8 


money. These were pierced with a hole, and 
carried about strung on a cord. 

Chinamen speak a curious language. Although 
it has no grammar, it is much harder to learn 
6 than our own. Every syllable, instead of being a 
word or a part of a word, represents an idea ; 
and in order to talk much, one must learn about 
five thousand of these ideas. Surely we would 
rather have our alphabet, our spelling-book, and 
10 our grammar, — all three ! 

The Chinese, at first, wrote on bamboo tablets 
with a stylus. Later, they used a brush on a 
paper of closely woven silk ; but this cost so much 
that they finally made paper of bark, rags, and 
15 fishing-nets. On this they printed, nine hundred 
years before any other country had learned the art. 

The Chinese were very proud and did not wish 
to have anything to do with the people of other 
lands, except to sell them their beautiful fabrics 
20 woven in wool and silk. An old writer tells how 
they sometimes made a sale. A merchant would 
send w'ord that he wished to buy some silk stuff. 
The Chinaman who made it would carry a piece 
to a certain place and leave it; then the mer- 
26 chant would look at the silk, and place by it 
the sum of money which he was willing to pay. 
Then he would go away and the Chinaman 
would come and look. If he thought that the 


9 


merchant was paying enough, he would take the 
money and leave the silk ; but if he thought not, 
he would leave the money and carry away his 
precious silk. 

It would not be interesting to study about all 6 
the emperors of China. We wish, instead, to 
know about one of the greatest men who ever 
lived there. He was neither emperor, soldier, nor 
statesman, but just the beloved teacher, Confucius. 
He was called the “ Holy Ancient Teacher.” lo 

Perhaps, as we study about his life, we may 
learn from it some lessons, just as the boys and 
girls in China are learning to-day. Although he 
lived over two thousand years ago, every boy and 
girl, in every Chinese school, must bow each dayis 
in admiration before a tablet sacred to Confucius. 

Besides this, the children are always studying 
his teachings, and older pupils can repeat chapter 
after chapter of his precepts. 

Confucius lived about five hundred years before 20 
Christ It is said that on a beautiful stone found in 
his father’s garden was the following prophecy : — 

" A child is to appear, pure as the crystal wave 5 
A ting, but without dominion.” • 

It was true, for Confucius was a kingly teacher, 26 
having had hundreds of millions of followers, 
young and old, in all the centuries. 


10 


When he was a little boy, he was so eager to 
learn that sometimes he would forget to eat. 

But once when he was tired of studying, and 
was thinking of giving it up, he saw an old 
5 woman rubbing an iron bar on a whetstone. She 
had lost her knitting-needle and was trying to 
make another, though she knew that it would take 
years to rub down the bar. Then Confucius was 
ashamed and said, “ Shall an old woman have 
10 more resolution than I?” and he went back to 
his books. 

At that time, China was go\^erned very badly ; 
and even as a boy, Confucius thought that he 
would try hard to make the country better. 

15 When he was twenty years old, he began to 
teach. At first, the emperor liked him greatly, 
and made him his prime minister ; but he grew 
jealous of him, and sent him away from the court. 
Then Confucius went from place to place, teaching 
20 the people. 

When he was seventy-three years old, he died, 
Like all truly great men, he felt that he had ac- 
complished very little. But really he had done 
more to make the people of China good than any 
25 other man who has ever lived there. 

Leading up to his tomb is an avenue of cy* 
presses, and before it a gate of exquisite work- 
manship. On the tomb are the words ; — 


11 


" The most sagely ancient Teacher, 

The all-accomplished, all-informed/^ 

Around the tomb are tablets inscribed with 
glowing tributes to the man whom, above every 
other, China delights to honor. In all the cities 5 
there are temples to Confucius where officials of 
the empire worship on special occasions. 

Now what did Confucius teach that has made 
him so loved ? His books are called the « Chinese 
Classics.” They are about history and music and lo 
astronomy and politics and philosophy and reli- 
gion, and many other subjects that you may not 
understand. 

But he gave to the people wise rules for their 
conduct, which are good for every boy and girlis 
to study. He taught children to be very kind to 
their parents and teachers and all older people. 
Also, that everybody- should help others to live a 
true and happy life. The « welfare ” of the people 
it is called, and this means that every person 20 
^should «fare well” and be happy. 

Long after Confucius died, an emperor named 
Ching Wang came to the throne. He is called the 
“ National Hero,” because he drove the fierce 
Tartars out of the country and built the Great 26 
Wall of China. This wall extended for twelve 
hundred miles along the northern frontier of the 


12 


kingdom, and was from fifteen to thirty feet high. 
It was fianked with towers. 

It was wide enough for six horsemen to ride 
abreast, and it is said that, at one time, it was 
6 guarded by a million soldiers. But Ching Wang 
did another thing which was very wicked, and he 
is called the “ Book-burner.” He wished to make 
the Chinese believe that he founded the empire. 
He hated learning, and resolved to destroy the 
10 writings of Confucius. So he ordered almost all 
Chinese books to be burned; and anybody found 
with a book must be punished by laboring four 
years on the Great Wall. 

After Ching Wang’s death, a better emperor 
15 came to the throne. He loved books, and was 
called the “Restorer of Literature.” Then books 
which had been in the ground, and under beds of 
streams, and in the walls of houses, were brought 
out, and the people began again to study 
20 Confucius. 

We know how Confucius and the people in all 
the ages in China have hated progress; but just 
now, bicycles and automobiles and telegraphs and 
telephones and railroads and electricity and many 
26 new ideas are being carried into China. We must 
hope, however, that the Chinese will not forget 
Confucius and the beautiful wisdom which he 
brought to them so long ago. 


13 


SAYINGS OF CONFUCIUS 

“Study as if you would never ^each the point 
you seek to attain.” 

“Patience is the most necessary thing in the 
world.” 

“ He that is satisfied with himself is not perfect.” 5 

“ What you do not like when done to yourself, 
do not do to others.” 

India and Buddha 
I. INDIA 

India is a very old and a very wonderful coun- 
try^ and while it is only half the size of the United 
States, it contains four or five times as many people. 10 
The Sacred River and the Sacred City of the world 
are in India, and on its northern boundary rise the 
highest mountains, some of the peaks soaring five 
miles and a half right up into the clouds. 

In what Grand Division of the earth is India? 15 
Can you bound it and name its Sacred River, ^ its 
Sacred City, and its highest mountain range ? 

India is very rich, for quantities of rubies, pearls, 
diamonds, and other precious stones are found 
there, besides gold and ivory and spices. From 20 
earliest times, other nations have traded with 
India to secure some of its treasures. 







15 


Then, there are wonderful tropical fruits and 
flowers in abundance, and trees full of peacocks 
and monkeys. Elephants, lions, and tigers are 
hunted in the jungles. 

The delightful fairy stories and folklore of the 5 
« Romantic Land of Ind” are full of wise-talking 
animals as well as of splendid rajahs. Some of the 
animals are sacred, and in one place even monkeys 
are worshiped as gods. We are told that long 
ago, in one of the holy wars of India, someio 
monkeys clung together and formed a bridge, 
over which the army safely crossed and won a 
battle. In honor of this deed, a monkey temple 
was built in the Sacred City of Benares. In its 
central court is a hideous idol, while the little 15 
chambers all around are filled with holy monkeys. 
At the priest’s call, hundreds of these little chat- 
terers appear. If any person should injure one 
of them, he would, at once, be torn to pieces. 

The oldest language of the world is the Sanscrit. 20 
It is not spoken now, but learned people study it, 
for its writings are full of poetic thoughts. 

The ancient books of India were in manuscript, 
beautifully inscribed on palm leaves. The early 
rulers had a great many of these books. It is 25 
said that the library of one king was so large 
that one hundred men were obliged to care for 
it. He took it with him when he traveled, and 


16 


a thousand dromedaries were employed to convey 
it from place to place. 

The Taj, thought by some to be the most 
beautiful building in the world, is found at Agra, 

6 in northern India. As one approaches, it seems 
like a mountain of gleaming marble with cluster- 
ing minarets ; it is called a « poem in stone ” and 
a « house of jewels built for love.” Its walls 
of exquisite stone lace work are incrusted with 
10 twelve kinds of costly stones. A rich mogul em- 
ployed twenty thousand men to labor upon it for 
over twenty years, for it was the tomb of his 
precious wife. 

The cities of India are full of gorgeous palaces, 
16 and mosques, with their domes blazing with gold. 
Temples, the most wonderful ever erected are seen 
all over the land — living temples to Brahma and 
ruined temples to Buddha. These are the homes 
of most horrible idols, and the people that wor- 
20 ship them are called idolaters. The idolaters pros- 
trate themselves before these false gods, who, 
they think, will hear and answer their prayers. 
The idols are made of wood and stone. Some 
have many heads and arms, some have horns' 
25 sticking out of their heads, and still others have 
tusks coming from their mouths. 

This idolatrous religion came to India very long 
ago, and it was called Brahmanism. Brahma was 


17 


supposed to be the soul of the universe, and was 
worshiped as three persons in one god : Brahma, 
the creator ; Vishnu, the preserver ; and Siva, the 
destroyer. 

One of the worst things that Brahmanism did for 6^ 
the people was to divide them into four castes, — 
priests, soldiers, merchants, and slaves. Naturally 
those in one caste looked with contempt on those 
in the one below. The people of the different castes 
were kept as much apart as if they lived in separate lO 
countries. It was a sin for a man in one caste to 
help any one in another, even to give him a bit of 
bread or a drink of water. If he did so, he would 
lose his paste, and become a pariah or an outcast — 
cast out from everybody! U 

II. BUDDHA 

We have described Brahmanism and its castes, 
so that we may know in what a sad condition 
India was, when Buddha appeared, about six 
hundred years before Christ. It will be a pleasure 
to study his beautiful life, and to find how hard he 20 
tried to do away with misery and selfishness, and 
to make the people happy. 

Buddha’s father was king over a native tribe in 
India, and his home was near the Sacred City of 
Benares. Gautama, for that was Buddha’s name, 26 


18 


was a lovely baby, and when he was only a few 
days old, he was presented before an idol. The 
idol is said to have bowed its head, and this proved 
that Buddha would be a great man. The father 
5 felt that his little son was too quiet and thought- 
ful, and he was afraid that he would some time 
leave his home to become a Brahman priest. 

Therefore, the king determined to make him so 
happy that he would never desire to go out into 
10 the world; he should never even see it ! So he had 
three palaces built, and surrounded them with a 
high wall ; and here the boy was to live. The 
gardens were full of bright flowers and birds of gor- 
geous plumage ; lovely boys played with Gautama, 
15 and maidens, skilled in music and dancing, waited 
upon him. ‘‘ I will imprison him in flowers,” said 
his father, “ and he shall never know the meaning 
of old age and death.” 

When Gautama grew up, he married a charming 
20 princess, and she, too, tried to make him happy. 
But somehow he could not live just to be happy 
himself^ for his heart was full of love and pity, 
and an unknown voice seemed ever calling him to 
a better and more unselfish life. But he did not 
25 know how to attain this life! One night he could 
endure it no longer. He rose, and taking a last 
look at his wife and little son as they were sleeping, 
he mounted his horse, and with a favorite attend- 


19 


ant rode out of the gate and beyond the high wall 
surrounding his palace. He sought a hermitage in 
the jungle, and became the pupil of a Brahman 
priest. But the priest could not tell him the cause 
of his sorrow nor how to heal it. So with a few 
companions, he entered a dense forest and gave 
himself up to serious thought. He ate scarcely one 
grain of rice a day, and soon grew thin and pale, 
and finally became unconscious. 

He found that fasting did not help him, and 
longed more and more for perfect wisdom. 

One night he lay under a tree facing the sunrise, 
and as the east reddened with the dawn, a new 
light came to him. He knew that sin is the cause 
of unhappiness, and that the secret of a truly blessed 
life is to live purely and to do good. 

He commenced his preaching in Benares, for he 
said, “ I am going to that city to give liglit to those 
that are in darkness.” Buddha chose his priests 
from all classes. He did away with the foolish 
caste system, and the rich and the poor worshiped 
together. He condemned the penances and tor- 
tures of Brahmanism, but he always believed in 
living like a hermit. 

He taught that everybody, after death, came back 
to the earth in the form of some animal, unless the 
life had been so holy that the spirit passed at once 
to Nirvana, which was the Buddhist heaven, a home 


5 

10 

15 

20 

25 


20 


of perfect joy and peace. On account of his belief in 
the transmigration of souls, all animal life must be 
treated with kindness, since any animal might con- 
tain the soul of some dead friend. 

6 Apart from this singular belief, his instruction 
was pure and simple, — to live in charity, to 
speak the truth, and to honor one’s parents. He 
taught that if we would be really happy, we must 
forsake sin and strive after goodness. One of 
10 Buddha’s famous sayings is as follows: «He who 
lives for pleasure only, the tempter certainly will 
overcome him as a wind throws down a weak 
tree.” 

The sacred books of Buddha are called « The 
15 Tripitika ” or « Three Baskets,” and they contain 
five times as much reading as our Bible. 

After Buddha’s death, he was made a god ; and 
idol-worship, with all its charms and dreadful super- 
stitions, was accorded to him. Buddha would not 
20 have liked this; for he never pretended to be a 
god, only a good man who taught the people how 
to obtain the greatest happiness. 

Buddhism, later, lost its power in India, and 
Brahmanism was restored, and ever since has had 
25 great influence there ; but over a large portion of 
the rest of Asia, Buddhism prevails, and even 
Brahmanism has caught some of the gentler spirit 
of its teaching. 









22 


In studying about India and all its valuable prOv 
ductions and strange religions, it seems curious to 
think that to-day this ancient land is owned by 
England, a country so small that it would fit 
6 into one little corner of India. How did this come 
about ? 

We said, in the beginning, that other countries 
liked to trade with India because of her rich 
treasures ; England was one of these countries. 
10 She sent her ships, and, in time, built forts and 
warehouses, and then trading towns, and, at last, 
established the East India Company. Then the 
native tribes asked the protection of the English 
soldiers. Little by little England had conquered 
15 the countrj^ 

The king of England is now emperor of India, 
and the viceroy or governor-general whom he sends 
there rules absolutely over all the native tribes. 

Egypt 

Par away in the very northeastern part of 
20 Africa lies Egypt, famous as being one of the 
earliest inhabited countries in the world. Can you 
bound Egypt and find on the map Memphis and 
Thebes, its two old capital cities, and trace the 
course of its one great river, the Nile ? 

26 All the history of Egypt seems to cling very 


23 


closely to the banks of this river as it flows slowly 
through the country ; past sculptured rocks and 
colossi, the temple palaces of Thebes and Karnak, 
and the beautiful island of Philae, then by the 
Pyramids of old Memphis, on its way out to the 5 
Great Sea. 

Can we wonder that old Father Nile draws to 
himself special dignity and interest because of the 
marvels along his banks ? 

‘Egypt is called the “Gift of the Nile,” forio 
the river overflows once every year, carrying fer- 
tility throughout the land. 

In ancient times, the harvests were so rich that 
Egypt was called the “ Granary of the World.” 

It seldom rains there, and so the Nile and the 15 * 
canals running from it all over the country are 
very important in making it fertile. 

We do not know exactly how many thousands 
of years ago the history of Egypt really began ; 
but just as far back as we can trace it, the 20 
people had knowledge of wonderful arts and crafts 
and sciences, — things of which the Egyptians of 
to-day know nothing. 

We like to read about their music and dances 
and games and dinner parties, their tailors and 25 
goldsmiths and glass-blowers, their small papyrus 
canoes, large two-masted boats, and great war- 
chariots. 


24 


The boys and girls were well educated. Indeed, 
I wish that all our boys and girls would feel it as 
great an accomplishment to read and write well as 
did the early Egyptians. They were more fond 
&of writing than any other ancient people, and they 
wrote on papyrus, a kind of paper made from a 
reed which then grew in the Nile. Sometimes the 
rolls were more than one hundred feet long. They 
wrote, also, on toys and instruments and mummies 
10 and pillars and on the walls of their temples, either 
with a reed dipped in ink or with chisel graving 
on the hard stone. So that to learn about Egypt, 
one must read not only the papyrus rolls, but 
all the monuments, too, and it is hard history, of 
16 course, because it is written on stone ! 

The writing was called hieroglyphics. This long 
name means “ picture-carving.” In Egyptian writ- 
ing there was a symbol for everything: for in- 
stance, day was i represented by the sun ; bravery, 
20 by a lion; praise, by a man with his hands up- 
lifted ; and anger, by an enraged monkey. 

The Egyptians were very religious, and shewed 
great reverence for their gods. They believed in 
one Supreme Deity ; under him were triads of 
26 gods, and each city had its own three. The high- 
est triad was formed of Osiris, Isis, and Horus. 
Typhon was the god of evil. 

The worst thing about the religion was the 



AW ANCIENT PAPYRUS 




















26 


animal worship. The soul of Osiris, for example, 
was found in the sacred bull Apis, a huge animal 
with peculiar markings. To it a temple was 
reared at Memphis, and after death its body was 
6 embalmed and buried with great ceremony. The 
moment Apis died, the soul of Osiris entered! 
another bull, and the priests began their search 
all over the land to find the new Apis. They 
would recognize it by the markings, and, at once, 
10 it became sacred. We may imagine that the 
priests had something more to do with these 
markings than the people realized. 

Beetles or scarabsei were emblems of the sun, 
and were, also, very sacred. Cats were so holy 
15 that to kill one was a punishable offence ; and 
when a dog died, all the family went into such 
deep mourning that they shaved their heads. 

Near Lake Moeris crocodiles were worshiioed. 
They were stretched on rich carpets inside the 
20 temples. Their necks were adorned with glittering 
gems and their feet with bracelets. After death 
they were embalmed and carried to their rock- 
cut .tombs, followed by a procession of mourners. 
The secret of embalming the bodies of both men 
86 and animals was known only to the priests. The 
body to be embalmed was filled with gums and 
spices and wrapped in bands of fine linen. Then 
it was placed within several cases. The outer 


27 


one was richly painted, and on it was inscribed 
a long line of hieroglyphics telling the name and 
family of the deceased. 

Let us now examine the tombs and palace tem- 
ples on which was written so much of the his- 6 
lory of the early Egyptians. The tombs of Beni- 
Hassan, for example, were cut out of the solid 
rock. They were entered by doors, and looked 
much like cheerful little dwellings. The walls of 
the rooms were adorned in bright, warm colors, 10 
with scenes of everyday life. The figures stood 
out a little from the surface, giving to the whole 
the appearance of rich tapestry. A poulterer’s shop 
would be pictured, or the making of glass or gold 
ornaments, or the chiselling of a statue. What- 16 
ever had been the mummy’s occupation in life 
would be shown, and there would be flowers and 
birds and fishes, all in gay color and perfect in 
detail. 

The climate of Egypt is so dry that these 20 
paintings are wonderfully preserved, and without 
them we never could have understood the life of 
a people living so many thousand years ago. 

The sculptures are stiff and have very little 
drapery ; the figures are either standing or sitting. 25 
All the faces seem to have the same stony stare, 
and like the arms and legs look as if nothing 
could move them. 


28 


The palace temples were approached by an 
avenue of sphinxes, and often in front of them was 
an obelisk. 

Obelisks were very striking objects built of one 
5 block of granite, and their form symbolized the 
rays of the sun. 

Passing through the courts of the temple, a 
little dark enclosure within called the cella was 
finally reached ; this contained the bull or croco- 
lodile or other sacred animal, worshiped as a god. 
Imagine a temple approached by sphinxes, an obe- 
lisk, and gateway and courts, and only a croco- 
dile within ! 

We learn much about the Egyptians if we visit 
15 the Metropolitan Museum in New York. For there 
are found mummies of people and of bulls, a 
beautiful reproduction of an old temple, and pa- 
pyrus inscriptions. In front of the museum is 
the obelisk — a thing of special interest — and we 
20 look upon it with admiration, as did the Egyptian 
worshipers thousands of years ago. Standing in 
its silent dignity, it seems to urge us to study more 
and more about that distant land which once was 
its home. What a change from quiet and solemn 
25 Egypt to gay and cheerful Central Park 1 


29 


Cheops 

All the early kings of Egypt were called 
Pharaohs. They rode in advance of their armies, 
in richly ornamented war chariots. Their cour- 
. tiers, coming into their presence, were obliged to 
prostrate themselves so humbly that they actually 5 
rubbed their noses on the ground. 

Remote and misty Menes is called the first 
king; but who he was or what he did we cannot 
tell, except that he is supposed to have built 
Memphis. Can you wonder at this when youio 
think of the thousands of years which have passed 
since his time ? 

Cheops, another king belonging to the ancient 
empire of pyramid builders, insisted on being al- 
ways remembered. So he built for himself the 15 
most gigantic tomb in the world. Even to-day, on 
some of its stones, we may find his name written. 

Memphis, the capital city of Cheops, is in 
ruins. But standing there right on the edge of the 
desert, three great pyramids tower like mountains 20 
above the sandy plain, and near them is the Sphinx, 
with its solemn face, looking off over the desert. 

The largest of the pyramids is the one built 
by Cheops. Probably its shape was taken from 
the shallow graves with stones heaped over them 25 
which the Egyptians had made. This pyramid 


was four hundred and eighty feet high, and was in- 
cased in highly polished stone ; but stones have been 
taken from it for buildings in Cairo, and it is now 
but four hundred and sixty feet high — about twice 
5 the height of Bunker Hill Monument. 

One may ascend now, by two hundred and 
three jagged steps, to the very top, on which is a 
platform nearly three yards square. 

It is wonderful how many important things 
10 this great monument tells us about Cheops and 
Egypt, too, in those olden days. 

When a king commenced his reign, he at once 
began to build his tomb. Cheops covered thirteen 
acres of land with his. Its sides face exactly to 
15 the north, east, south, and west. Many of the 
blocks of stone of which it is built must have 
been dragged from a quarry fully five hundred 
miles distant. What must have been engineering 
skill for those days ! 

20 In the interior of the pyramid were narrow 
passages leading to rooms. The king’s chamber 
in the center was to hold his tomb. Think of the 
hundred thousand workmen whom he is said to 
have employed for thirty years in building this 
25 pyramid. Think of their daily work, toiling not 
only under the burning sun, but also under the 
rods of taskmasters, pausing just long enough to 
eat their meal of garlic and radishes. 




32 


But Cheops was punished sorely for his oppres- 
sion; for it so angered the people that when he 
died, he was buried elsewhere, and his magnifi- 
cent pyramid holds only his empty tomb. 

6 The Sphinx, which is near the great pyramid, 
has always preserved such truly sphinx-like 
silence that we do not know the name of its 
builder, but it is perhaps as old as the pyramid 
itself. It has the body of a lion and a human 
10 face, and thus seems to be an Egyptian emblem of 
combined power and intelligence. 

How wonderful to think of all the centuries 
that have rolled away since the pyramids and the 
Sphinx first looked out over the desert ! If they 
15 could only speak, what history they might reveal 
to us of the myriads of people that have passed 
before them through all the ages 1 What a pro- 
cession there has been — from the time of Cheops, 
thousands of years ago, until our own day ! What 
20 do you suppose is the latest thing which they 
could describe to us ? Nothing less than the 
trolley cars, which, starting in Cairo, run out 
under the very shadow of these motionless monu- 
ments. What do you imagine stony old Cheops 
25 would think of this strange comer in his ancient 
and quiet and dignified land ? 


33 


Rameses II the Great 

R AMESES II is called the most magnificent of all 
the Pharaohs. Surely he was the most boastful, 
for he had more colossal statues and other great 
monuments written over with his own praises than 
any other king that ever lived. Perhaps a good 6 
name for him would be “ Monumental Rameses.’’ 

Since the days of shadowy Cheops and his pyra- 
mid, Memphis and the kings of the old empire had 
passed away, and Thebes, very much farther up the 
Nile, was the capital of a new and splendid empire, lo 
From a peaceful people the Egyptians had become 
very warlike. They had learned that besides the 
Nile there were two other great rivers in the world, 
— the Tigris and Euphrates. They found, also, 
that upon the banks of these rivers the two splen-i5 
did cities of Nineveh and Babylon had been built. 

Now the thing for the Pharaohs to do was to 
fight these cities, in order to bring from them 
spoils and captives, and then to build the most 
stupendous monuments ever known in the world. 20 

Indeed, the first great battles fought in early 
history were among the peoples living on the banks 
of the Nile, the Tigris, and the Euphrates. If you 
will find on your map these three rivers, you will 
see in the country lying between them in western 26 
Asia the early battlefields of the world. 


84 


The kings before Rameses II had been great war- 
riors and builders. One of them had raised near 
Thebes two colossal statues. These were seated 
figures forty-seven feet high, each cut from a solid 
6 block of granite. 

One of them was called the “ Vocal Memnon,” 
because it sang when struck by the rays of the rising 
sun. And the two great solitary figures are sitting 
there to-day, gazing out over the desert sands just as 
10 they have done perhaps for over four thousand years. 
If you ever go to see them, ask your guide to climb 
up into the lap of one of them and conceal himself 
there, and then strike a stone as did the priests in 
the olden time. You then hear the “Vocal Mem- 
16 non ” sing just as it used to sing to the Egyptians. 

When Rameses was only a boy, his father, Seti, 
let him rule with him, and after his death Rameses 
succeeded to the throne. He determined that he 
would do even greater things than the Pharaohs 
20 had done before him. 

No one had attacked him, and he had not the 
slightest excuse for going to war, but he must have 
spoils and captives. Then, too, he must see the 
great world, and the world must see the great 
25 Rameses ! 

So all the country was astir. Hammers and 
forges were heard over the land ; weapons and 
armor and chariots were made ready ; grain-boats 


35 


and fruit-boats were filled. Then alike from mud- 
villages and “Hundred-gated Thebes,” men and 
asses and horses and chariots went forth. An 
army of seven hundred thousand men was ready 
for the conflict. Before starting, however, offerings 
were made to the gods and solemn promises, too, 
to build for them new temples when the war was 
over. Then Rameses in his war chariot, followed 
by his great army, marched into the heart of 
Africa, then to the east over western Asia and 
back through Asia Minor. Wherever he pursued 
his plundering campaigns, he tried to lay the land 
waste by destroying town and fortresses, and by 
collecting treasures of gold and silver. In all 
places where Rameses fought, he set up tablets, 
covering them with inscriptions, telling, of course, 
what the mighty Rameses had done. 

He was engaged in war for nine years, and then 
returned to Thebes with his trophies of victory. 
He had intended to build to the gods, but he was 
so proud of himself now that all the monuments 
must be reared for his own glory. 

He added courts to a grand hall at Karnak, 
built temples at Luxor, two miles away, connecting 
the two with a street guarded on both sides by 
ram-headed sphinxes. Then he erected the Rame- 
seum in Thebes. This palace was to be his home. 
It was entered by magnificent pylons. The library 


5 

10 

15 

20 

25 


36 


was called « The Dispensary of the Soul,” and over 
its entrance door was written “The Medicine of 
the Mind.” The room was filled with books, not 
like our own, but papyrus rolls written over with 
6 hieroglyphics. If we could have glanced into one 
of these books of which the Egyptians were mpst 
proud, we would have found it to be called “ The 
Epic of Pentaur.” It was, naturally, a poem 
describing the brave deeds of Rameses. His huge 
10 monolithic statue was the most wonderful thing in 
the Rameseum. It weighed nine hundred tons. 
It represented Rameses seated majestically upon 
his throne. In a later age, however, he was lying 
on his face in stupendous fragments. Poor Rame- 
16 ses ! I wonder if his pride would have been 
brought low, if he could have seen himself as 
others see him now ! 

Again we find Rameses telling his story in 
Nubia, for there at the entrance to a rock-cut tomb 
20 are four stony-faced statues of him. They are 
each seventy feet in height. 

It is said that late in life Rameses even erased 
his father’s name from many monuments, placing 
his own instead. A strange doing was it not? 
25 Especially as to-day many think that the works 
of Seti were even more magnificent than those of 
his great son. 

It is probable that the Israelites were among the 



RAMESSEUM RESTORED 






38 


captives of Rameses, and that he made them build 
treasure cities. When Moses became the deliverer 
of the Israelites, it was one of the later Pharaohs 
who let them go and then chased them into the 
6 Red Sea. But we have not finished with Rame- 
ses yet. 

In 1881 his mummy was discovered, and when 
unwrapped, it was found to be remarkably pre- 
served. It is kept in a museum in Cairo, and 
10 some who have seen it say that even now the 
face would make one think of the countenance of 
a king. 

And what of Egypt after the time of Rameses 
the Great? It just became a prey, in turn, to 
16 conquering powers of the ancient world. 


Assyria 

In reading about Egypt, we have spoken of the 
Tigris and Euphrates rivers and of the cities of 
Nineveh and Babylon built upon their banks. 
Around these rivers in the early days a famous 
20 Assyrian and Babylonian empire grew up. Egyp- 
tian history is hard to understand because it is 
written on stone / but this Assyrian is harder yet 
because it is hurled ! Stupendous Egyptian monu- 
ments carved with hieroglyphics stand up boldly 
25 to-day on the plains of old Thebes as much as to 


39 


wSay, “ Here I am, read me who can ; ” while on the 
banks of the Tigris and Euphrates we find nothing 
but great mounds. Men must dig, and dig beneath 
them, to learn the ancient history of the country. 

Before recalling the story of the first great World 5 
Empire, as Assyria and Babylonia were called, let 
us find on our map Nineveh on the Tigris and Baby- 
lon on the Euphrates, and try to picture two 
splendid cities with palaces and towers glitter- 
ing in the sunlight, and again, as we would find 10 
them to-day, the great desolate plain covered over 
with heaps of rubbish. The two rivers, however, 
are flowing along with silent course as in the ages 
past. Do you know where they rise, in which 
direction they flow, and where they empty ? 16 

The Assyrians worshiped the sun, moon, and 
planets. The king was reverenced almost like a 
god, and he was such a despot that even his nobles 
would tremble if he glanced at them. Seated on 
his golden throne, he gave audiences to his subjects 20 
who prostrated themselves before him, not daring 
to rise until he bade them. 

The Assyrians were not very religious, and often 
their temples were only little shrines. They were 
noted as city builders and palace builders. Their 25 
capital was Nineveh, and its palaces were gorgeous. 

These were built on high terraces, the en- 
trances guarded by colossal winged bulls and lions. 


40 


the interiors divided into courts and halls. The 
courts were lined with immense stone slabs, 
elaborately carved in relief with representations of 
events in the life of the monarch by whom the 
6 palace was built, and over the relief was a cunei- 
form writing which described it. 

These slabs and some terra-cotta cylinders with 
inscriptions are the most important things which' 
have come down to us from the old Assyrian his- 
10 tory ; these cylinders were engraved with repre- 
sentations of Assj^rian life and inscriptions, so that 
when they were rolled along a piece of wax or soft 
clay an impression would be left. All these things 
with the palaces were buried until the middle of 
15 the last century. In 1845 Mr. Layard, an English 
traveler, found them in digging; and through his 
discoveries we have learned more of Assyrian his- 
tory, during the past sixty years, than was known 
in all the previous ages. In the representations 
20 on these slabs the king is always much larger 
than his courtiers, and appears with great dignity. 
Sometimes he is seated and receiving prisoners of 
war or accepting the homage of his subjects ; again, 
he is engaged in hunting, or is in his war-chariot, 
26 surrounded by bearers. 

Assyrian art is such an honest art ! If a ladder 
is represented, it is always placed sideways so that 
one may know it to be a ladder and not a pole 


41 


In a river, the fish are all on top, so that we 
may be sure they are there ; winged bulls and 
lions have each five legs so that a person may 
see four wherever he stands. 

We have said so much about this art just 5 , 
because from it alone we get all our knowledge 
of old Assyrian life. 

Sardanapalus II 

The history of Babylonia really begins earlier 
than that of Assyria, but Assyria was the first 
conquering power, and it subdued and ruled overio 
Babylon for nearly seven hundred years. 

During this period there were many famous 
kings, but their names are very long and hard to 
remember. 

Some of them were hunters, and others kept 16 
royal menageries, in which were bears, lions, hy- 
enas, buffaloes, wild cattle, and ostriches. 

Other kings were great warriors fighting in 
Egypt and western Asia. Then, after successful 
victories, they would return home to build magnifi-20 
cent palaces. 

From what we know about Asshur-bani-pal, or 
Sardanapalus II, he must have been a cruel and 
vain king. He conquered his enemies in several 
campaigns, and then built his palace, which was 26 
one of the largest and most gorgeous. Like all 


42 


Assyrian palaces, it was raised on a lofty platform, 
the entrance being guarded by winged bulls and 
lions. The courts were lined with exquisitely 
carved alabaster slabs, and with pictured tablets 
6 describing the famous acts of the great Sardana- 
palus II. On one slab he is represented seated in 
embroidered robes on a carved chair. 

Chairs in Assyria were sacred to gods and kings. 
His tiara or crown and his shoes are adorned with 
10 rosettes; he wears necklaces, bracelets, and ear- 
rings. He holds a scepter, and a sword and dagger 
are by his side, while behind him his bearer holds 
a parasol over his kingly head. Evidently he was 
fond of hunting lions. In one scene he is seated 
15 in his chariot, and lions, just released from cages, 
are trying to escape. The spearmen are preventing 
them while the king is aiming his arrows. One 
lion has fallen, wounded by the deadly dart. 
Always Sardanapalus goes to war in his chariot, in 
20 richest robes, and surrounded by a retinue of bearers, 
holding his fan-parasol, and bow and quiver. 

The most splendid thing, however, that Sardana- 
palus did for Nineveh was to give to the city a 
library of clay books. This was kept in two large 
25 rooms in the palace. The books were square clay 
tablets about an inch thick, written on both sides 
in cuneiform inscriptions. They were carefully 
numbered and arranged in great piles upon the 



A PAXACE IN NINEVEH RESTORED 





44 


floor. There were works on law, geography, 
grammar, history, mathematics, botany, and as- 
tronomy. 

There was a catalogue of this library, and one 
6 of the tablets contained the notice, “Visitors are 
requested to give to the librarian the number of 
the book they wish to consult, and it will be 
brought to them.” 

We know that the library was open to the 
10 public, for there had been found an inscription 
saying, “ I, Asshur-bani-pal, wrote upon the tablets. 
I placed them in my palace for the instruction of 
my people.” 

This library was lost, buried for many centuries 
15 in the mounds of ruins ; but when in 1845 Mr. 
Layard made other discoveries, the two rooms were 
found piled up with clay books. There were 
perhaps as many as ten thousand. Sardanapalus 
was cruel and vain ; but shall we not honor him 
20 above all other kings of Assyria ? for he gave to his 
city the thing which always brings honor to a man, 
— a library for the instruction of the people. 

Babylonia 

The history of Babylonia is very, very ancient. 
In the earliest age the Chaldeans and Babylonians 
26 were known to be living in a fertile valley around 
the Euphrates River. 


45 


They worshiped their gods with great pomp, 
a principal one being Bel or Belus, which means 
“ lord ” or “ master.” They built for these gods 
great tower-shaped temples. 

The Babylonians were more religious and much 6 
more fond of learning than were the Assyrians. 
They used the cuneiform writing; they divided 
their years into months, weeks, days, hours, and 
minutes ; and they knew about many mechanical 
devices, such as levers, pulleys, weights, and meas-io 
ures. They studied grammar, mathematics, his- 
tory, philosophy, and other sciences. 

Their learned priests were called Chaldeans. 
They took great interest in the army and in 
politics, and in many subjects, especially astron-i5 
omy. Indeed, every large city had its observatory 
and its royal Chaldean astronomers. 

There were, also, famous astrologers, that is, 
priests who told fortunes by the stars. They 
would sit within their towers, watching the 20 
heavenly bodies, and from their movements, they 
read warnings to the people. Then, too, they were 
usually skillful interpreters of dreams, telling the 
people what it was best to do about them. 1 
say usually^ for do you remember the story of one2& 
dream which they could not interpret ? And what 
wonder ! for the king himself had forgotten what 
he had dreamed, and if a great prophet had not 


46 


been present, all the Chaldean astrologers might 
have been killed. 

During the seven hundred years in w^hich Baby- 
lonia and Assyria were united, they were one in 
Slanguage, and we think of them as doing many 
things in common. But when Nabopolassar con- 
quered Nineveh, 625 b.c., Babylon became the 
capital, and under Nebuchadnezzar the city enjoyed 
its “ Golden Age.” 


Nebuchadnezzar 

10 Our story opens in Babylon, about the begin- 
ning of the sixth century before Christ. Nabopo- 
lassar is upon the throne, and his young son 
Nebuchadnezzar has gone to war. He died sud- 
denly while Nebuchadnezzar was far away in 
15 Egypt, winning for his father a brilliant campaign. 

Nebuchadnezzar hurried home to secure his 
throne before any of his courtiers could revolt 
against him. His coming gave to his kingdom 
a splendid leader. Nebuchadnezzar’s name seems 
20 much more familiar to us than that of any other 
king about whom we have been reading. 

This is because we recall the Bible stories about 
his dream, his great image, and the burning fiery 
furnace. He would have been famous, if he had 
asdcme nothing else but adorn Babylon. Even 


47 


to-day when we think about the one city' in the 
ancient world which surpassed all others in size 
and wealth we know that the city is Babylon, in 
the “ Golden Age ” of Nebuchadnezzar. 

Nebuchadnezzar thought much more about this 6 
city than about his wars, although he took captives 
from almost every nation. 

Perhaps the siege which should interest us most 
is that of Jerusalem. This city was the capital 
over the two tribes of Judah. Nebuchadnezzar lo 
went against it twice ; and the second time, in 
order to punish the people for rebelling against 
him, he encamped his army closely about the walls 
of Jerusalem. Famine broke out among the Jews, 
and they were in great distress. 16 

Finally Nebuchadnezzar made a breach in the 
walls, and the Babylonians entered Jerusalem. A 
torch was applied to the beautiful temple of Solo- 
mon, and it was soon a mass of ruins. The whole 
city was destroyed, and the sacred vessels from the 20 
temple with many captives were carried away to 
Babylon, 586 b.c. 

Then, for thirteen years, Nebuchadnezzar fought 
against Tyre, and the Tyrians were very brave and 
persistent. At last they carried all their posses - 26 
sions to a neighboring island where -they built a 
new city, allowing Nebuchadnezzar to have the old 
one ; but his army had suffered terribly in taking it. 


48 


Egypt and many other countries were plundered. 
Then he returned to Babylon and devoted the rest 
of his life to the arts of peace. 

Babylon was a great inclosed district, rather 
5 than a closely built city ; and writers differ so 
much about the height of the walls and the size 
of the buildings that it is hard to get a clear idea 
of its dimensions. 

One of Nebuchadnezzar’s greatest works was to 
10 restore the old walls, which may have been over 
three hundred feet high and nearly one hundred 
feet thick. On these walls were placed many 
watch-towers. From the watchmen, the people 
learned first about the approach of an enemy. 
15 The city is said to have been square, and in each 
side of the wall which surrounded it there were 
twenty-five magnificent brass gates. 

The Euphrates River ran through the center 
of Babylon, and palaces were built upon its 
20 banks. 

The platform upon which Nebuchadnezzar’s 
grandest palace was erected must have covered 
many acres. 

It was probably two or three stories high; its 
26 courts, faced with colored tijes, were made of a 
brightly glazed clay on which were paintings, many 
of them representing animals and hunting scenes. 

The architecture and sculpture were superb. In 


49 


the palace were kept the silver and gold vessels 
brought from Solomon’s temple at Jerusalem. 

Nebuchadnezzar had married Amytis, the beauti- 
ful daughter of the Median king, and she so keenly 
missed the mountains of her own country that h© 5 
built for her the wonderful Hanging Gardens. They 
were made in imitation of a mountain. A great 
mound was raised, covered with terraces, on which 
grew the rarest plants and trees. There were spar- 
kling fountains and groves, and stately apartments lo 
where the queen might rest iii the cool shade. 
These Hanging Gardens and the walls were counted 
among the “Seven Wonders of the World.” 

Near the center of Babylon was an old temple 
of Belus. Possibly it stood upon the spot where 15 
the tower of Babel was built. Nebuchadnezzar is 
said to have rebuilt this temple into an irregular 
pyramid or circular building. It was made in 
seven stages, each stage being smaller and higher 
than the one outside of it. Each was dedicated 2a 
to a different planet and colored to represent it. 

I The sun was gold, the moon silver, Saturn black, 
‘Jupiter orange. Mars red, Venus pale yellow, and 
Mercury blue. This temple is supposed to have 
held statues of gods, and golden tables, and 25 
drinking-cups for their feasting. On its top was 
an observatory in which the Chaldean astronomers 
could worship the planets. 


60 


This temple of Belus when struck by the rays of 
the sun was the most glittering and beautiful of all 
the tower temples in Babylon. 

To-day just one tall monument rises on the plains 
5 of Babylon among all the ruins, and it is most im- 
pressive. It is called the Birs-i-Nimrud. Its bricks 
bear upon them the name of Nebuchadnezzar. Can 
this be the ruined temple of Belus ? can this be the 
spot where stood the tower of Babel ? no one can 
10 tell. 

Nebuchadnezzar was extremely proud of his 
city. We are told that he once said, “ Is not this 
great Babylon that I have builded ? ” Suddenly, 
however, he seems to have been overcome by a 
15 serious illness, and for a time he could not rule ; but 
again he was restored to health and to his throne. 

Wealth and luxury abounded in Babylon in his 
day, and he had a vigorous and splendid reign, 
lasting forty-three years. At his death there was 
20 great mourning, for the fame of Nebuchadnezzar 
and his vast city had gone all over the world. 


The Hebrews 

We have read about the wars and victories, the 
palaces and temples, and forms of worship of the 
eastern nations. We come now to the Hebrews, a 
26 people who made but few conquests, who did little 


51 


in architecture and sculpture, but who worshiped 
the true God. Their sacred book is the Bible, in 
which are found many different kinds of literature, 
— story and parable, proverb and prophecy, the 
most beautiful imagery, and the most sublime 6 
poetry. The wonder of all is that the more we 
read it, the more full it seems of interesting and 
impressive thoughts. 

The Hebrews lived in a small country called 
Canaan, which we find on the shore of the Great lo 
Sea. In the eastern part of the land are the Sea of 
Galilee, the Jordan River, and the Dead Sea ; the 
mountains of Lebanon are on the north, and the 
capital city, Jerusalem, is near the center. The 
country is only one hundred and fifty miles from 15 
north to south, and but fifty miles across in its 
widest part. 

Like the other countries it had for a time its 
independent history, and like them, too, it was con- 
quered. The history of the Hebrews seems to fall 20 
into seven periods, and they are as follows : — 

1. The Patriarchal : 

Abraham, Isaac, Jacob. 

2. The Egyptian : 

From Joseph to Moses. 26 

3. The Desert : 

Moses, Joshua. 


52 


5 


4 . The Judges : 

Gideon, Jephthah, and others. 

6. The Kings: 

Saul, David, Solomon. 

6. The Separation ; 

Jerusalem and Samaria. 

7. The Captivity : 

Revolt, Idolatry, Conquest. 


Our story opens with the first patriarch, Aora- 
10 ham, leading out his little family from distant 
Chaldea in quest of a new home. 

Journeying always westward, and pitching their 
tents from time to time like the Bedouins of the 
Desert, they at last reached Canaan, the land which 
15 God had promised to Abraham and to his family 
after him. 

Abraham had great faith and was ready to do 
whatever God commanded, even if obedience should 
cost him the life of his only son Isaac. 

20 When he died, Isaac succeeded his father as 
patriarch or head of the family. 

Perhaps the most interesting thing in his life is 
his love story, one of the sweetest of the olden 
time. 

25 Jacob, the last of the patriarchs, had twelve 
sons. He loved Joseph the best because he was 


53 


the most obedient. This made Josephus brethren 
so jealous that they decided to get rid of him. 

After a series of strange adventures we find 
Joseph in Egypt as a vizier at the court of the great 
Pharaoh. The king dressed him in rich clothing, 5 
and he wore a gold ’chain about his neck and rode 
in a chariot. 

Jacob greatly missed his favorite son, and later, 
too, he had other troubles, for a terrible famine 
came over the land. When his family found that 10 
they could endure it no longer, his sons went to 
Egypt to buy corn for their old father and for their 
children. How little they realized whom they were 
to meet there ! But when Joseph saw them, he 
knew them, and after a time he told them who is 
he was. How mortified they must have been, 
especially as he spoke very kindly to them rather 
than blaming them. He gave them gifts and sent 
them home to bring their father and wives and 
children to live in Egypt. They all came, — a 20 
family of seventy. 

The king was interested in them because they 
were shepherds, and they were given the beautiful 
valley of Goshen, where they lived very happily. 

Now we are in the Egyptimi Period of Hebrew 26 
history. 

Many years passed, different Pharaohs ruled the 
land, and the Hebrews increased in number till 


54 


they became a great multitude. Finally, a king, 
thought to be Rameses the Great, ascended the 
throne. He did not like to have so many Jews in 
the land, fearing that they might revolt against 
shim, and he treated them like the captives whom 
he had taken in his wars. At last he determined 
that every baby boy born into a Hebrew family 
should be killed. Little Moses was saved, however, 
and honored at Pharaoh’s court. Then he led the 
10 people out of Egypt, and the Desert Period followed. 

There were hardships in the forty years, but the 
people were free, and became united, and law and 
worship were established. Joshua, another splen- 
did general, led this great nation into the Promised 
15 Land. Canaan was divided among the twelve tribes. 

But there were heathen nations near Canaan, and 
they made attacks and tempted the people to wor- 
ship idols, so the Jews needed brave and wise 
leaders to fight for them, and from time to time 
Judges were raised up to be the deliverers. Some 
of them were Deborah, Gideon, Jephthah, and Sam-' 
son. Their liv^s are full of stirring adventure, for 
each did heroic deeds in rescuing the Hebrews from 
their enemies. 

25 . The Period of the Judges passed, and the people 
earnestly desired a king, that they might be led 
in battle like the nations about them. Samuel, 
the man of God, unwillingly anointed Saul. The 


55 


people were pleased with him, for he was tall and 
commanding as a king should be. He established 
his court at Gibeah, and gained victories ; but he 
was not a true man> and disobeyed God, and after 
being defeated he killed himself. Then David, 6 
the shepherd boy, became his successor, and he 
desired the two things which every king should 
have, — a capital city, and in it a temple dedicated 
to the worship of God. There was a strong fortress 
belonging to the Jebusites, situated in such a cen-io 
tral place that he wished it for his capital. He 
captured it, and built about it the city of Jeru- 
salem. 

He adorned the city, made famous conquests 
and alliances with other kings, and the Hebrews 15 
took high rank among the nations. This was the 
“ Golden Age ” of Hebrew history. The people 
loved and honored David, and when his son 
Absalom revolted, they held to him and restored 
him to his throne. Besides being a shepherd, a 20 
court minstrel, a champion, a conquering hero, and 
a king, David was a lawmaker, general, and states- 
man, but, with all his influence in each one of these 
callings, in all the ages he has been greatest as a • 
poet. The lyric songs or Psalms which he wrote 25 
have found a place in religious services from his 
time until now. One of these Psalms which 
echoes so beautifully his own shepherd life is 


56 


perhaps more familiar to us than anything else 
in the Bible except the Lord’s Prayer. 

David was also a lover of song and melody, and 
he arranged a choir of singers. His greatest desire 
5 was to build a temple for worship, but God did 
not permit this because he had been a man of war 
He was disappointed, but with the help of his 
friend Hiram, king of Tyre, materials were made 
ready for his son Solomon. When Solomon suc- 
loceeded his father on the throne, he erected the 
temple, and dedicated it with a wonderful service 
of song and prayer and thanksgiving. Saul, David, 
and Solomon each ruled forty years, so that the 
Period of Kings lasted one hundred and twenty 
15 years. 

It was followed by a Period of Separation be- 
tween the ten tribes and the two tribes. The ten 
tribes were conquered in 722 b.c., by Sargon, king 
of Assyria, and the two tribes in 586 b.c. by 
20 Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon. 

With this Period of Captivity the history of the 
Israelites as an independent nation ends. 

We must speak in closing of one other topic, and 
that is of the prophets who, in all the centuries 
26 stood by the side of these kings of Israel and 
Judah. They warned them of the sad fate await- 
ing their kingdoms if they gave them over to idola- 


67 


try ; and they at the same time prophesied of the 
coming of Christ. 

We have been following the history of the 
Hebrews, and before leaving it, we recall in 
order the different periods, — Patriarchal, Egyptian, 6 
Desert, Judges, Kings, Separation, and Captivity. 
Let lis try to remember the connecting links which 
bound them all together. 


Moses 

The story of Moses is more chivalric than that 
of any knight of King Arthur’s court. From the lO 
very beginning we feel its romance. The tiny 
baby hidden in its basket of bulrushes is watched 
over by a faithful young sister, rescued by a king’s 
daughter, and named Moses, because she drew him 
out of the water. 16 

Moses was brought up and educated royally in 
all the knowledge of the Egyptians, and he might 
have become a splendid courtier, but he chose 
rather to help his own people. They were suffer- 
ing as slaves under a cruel Pharaoh, one of the 20 
successors of Rameses the Great. Moses watched 
them at work, and in trying to fight for their cause 
killed an Egyptian taskmaster. Then afraid, be- 
cause of this act, he left court life forever behind 
him and fled to the land of Midian. Sitting one 25 


58 


day by the side of a well, he saw some damsels 
coming to draw water, and he was kind to them. 
In return, he was invited to their house, and mar- 
ried one of the sisters, and served the father for 
6 many years. The quiet life was good for Moses, 
and he grew wiser as he grew older. Finally, in 
some way, God revealed to him that he was to 
lead the children of Israel out of Egypt, away 
from sore persecution and into the Promised Land. 
10 Moses was timid, but God encouraged him, promis- 
ing to give him strength to do this great work. 
Think of what was before him ! He was to go 
back to Egypt to gain Pharaoh’s permission, and 
then, assisted by his brother Aaron, was to con- 
16 duct a multitude of slaves on a long journey from 
Africa over to Asia. 

Pharaoh objected very much to letting the people 
go, and only after bitter persecution and calamity 
were they allowed to start. But before going, in 
20 gratitude to God for the promised deliverance, they 
celebrated a 'feast called the Passover, so named 
because God had jpassed over the Israelites and 
punished the Egyptians. The Israelites left Egypt 
as slaves, but they entered the Desert an inde- 
26 pendent nation, with Moses as their leader. They 
gathered at the base of Mount Sinai, while Moses 
went up into the mountains. 

When, after forty days, he came down with the 


59 


Ten Commandments, he found that the people 
were worshiping a golden calf. Their only ex- 
cuse was, As for this Moses — we wot not what 
is become of him.” Then Moses was indignant, 
and he broke the tables of stone and ground the 
calf to powder. How could the people be so un- 
grateful after God had delivered them from slavery 
and tyranny ! But again the Commandments were 
given to Moses, and he at once set about establish- 
ing a form of service in which the people might 
worship God. 

Then the Ark was made to hold the Command- 
ments and other sacred things. It was a chest, 
with its top overlaid with gold and ornamented 
with two cherubs, and over it was to hover the 
mystic presence of God. A Tabernacle was built 
to hold the Ark, and it was placed in a little 
room called the Holy of Holies. In the Tabernacle 
there were also altars of incense and of burnt 
offerings. When the people encamped, the Taber- 
nacle always was placed in the center of the en- 
campment and also carried in the midst of the 
army when on the march. Then services and 
sacrifices were arranged. Aaron became High 
Priest, and he was clad in splendid vestments. 
On his miter were inscribed the words, “ Holiness 
to the Lord.” He was assisted in the Tabernacle 
service by priests and Levites. 


5 

10 

15 

20 

25 


60 


Moses established the Mosaic Laws, and by fol- 
lowing these the people could be holy and happy 
and keep themselves distinct from all other nations. 
Perhaps the one about education will interest the 
' 6 boys and girls of to-day, for the parents were com- 
manded to teach their children when they sat in the 
house, and when they walked in the way, and when 
they* lay down, and when they rose up. 

With Moses as their leader the people wandered 
10 in the Desert during forty years. They were fed 
with manna every morning and with quails every 
evening. Sometimes they murmured and fell into 
idolatry, and once, when Moses was on the mountain 
receiving the Commandments from God, they made 
16 a golden calf to worship, for they remembered Apis 
in Egypt ; but Moses punished them for their sin of 
idolatry. He was a great statesman and knew how 
to govern wisely. Once, however, he did wrong ; 
for when the people wished water and God told 
20 him to strike the rock, he spoke to the people words 
of anger and smote the rock in his owm name. 
Then God told him that because of this sin he 
could not lead the people over into the Promised 
Land. He was bitterly disappointed, but he did not 
26 murmur. He gave a public charge to Joshua, tell- 
ing him that he was to go before the people into 
Canaan. He blessed them all, and then obeying 
God’s direction he \yent to Mount Nebo, where he 


61 


died. God buried him, and “ God buried also his 
grave.” The nation mourned for him many days. 

Moses had proved himself a soldier, a leader, 
a lawgiver, a statesman, and a poet. His magnifi- 
cent song of deliverance from Egypt became the 6 
national anthem of the Hebrews. In Egypt the ' 
cold stony face of Rameses the Great gazes upon 
us still with a meaningless stare. How much 
more full of the expression of a leader and law- 
giver is the colossal statue in Rome, carved byio 
Michael Angelo to honor Moses, the chivalrous 
knight, whose faith and courage won the freedom 
of the children of Israel! 

SELECTED Vi;ilSES FROM BURIAL OF MOSES 

« This was the bravest warrior 

That ever buckled sword, • ' i6 

This the most gifted poet 
That ever breathed a word ; 

And never earth’s philosopher 
Traced with his golden pen 
On the deathless page truths half so sage 20 
As he wrote down for men. 

« And had he not high honor ? 

The hillside for his pall ; 

To lie in state while angels wait, 

With stars for tapers tall : 


26 


62 


And the dark rock-pines, like tossing plumeSc 
Over his bier to wave, 

And God’s own hand in that lonely land, 

To lay him in his grave. 

5 « Oh, lonely tomb in Moab’s land ! 

Oh, dark Beth-peor’s hill ! 

Speak to these curious hearts of ours, 

And teach them to be still. 

God hath his mysteries of grace, 

10 Ways that we cannot tell ; 

He hides them deep, like the secret sleep 
Of him he loved so well.” 

Solomon 

Saul, the disobedient king, had fallen on his 
sword and had been succeeded by David the “ man 
16 of war.” One of David’s last acts had been to have 
his son Solomon brought on the king’s mule to the 
fountain of Gihon, and there anointed from a horn 
of oil ; and the trumpet had been blown, and all 
the people had cried, « God save King Solomon ! ” 
20 Then, having charged his son to be strong, and to 
show himself a man, “ David slept with his Fathers,” 
and Solomon, his son, reigned in his stead. The 
young king owed very much to his father, for 
David had greatly extended the kingdom, and had 
25 left it at peace and in friendly alliance with other 


68 


countries. He had given his son a fine army, he 
had built and adorned Jerusalem, and he had 
established a musical service that had given as 
much impulse to Jewish worship as Homer’s 
“Iliad” had given to Greek history. Then, too, 5 
David had left gold and silver and materials all 
ready to build the House of the Lord. 

We remember that soon after Solomon became 
king, God had appeared to him in a dream, and 
had asked him what he should give him, and that 10 
instead of praying for a long life and riches Solo- 
mon had asked for wisdom. What a noble choice 
it was ! 

Very soon after Solomon ascended the throne 
he began the building of the Temple on Mount 15 
Moriah. Hiram, king of Tyre, sent him skilled 
workmen, and gave him cedar and fir trees. 
Solomon, in return, made Hiram presents of wheat 
and oil for food. The timber was floated in rafts 
over the great sea from Tyre to the port of Jerusa-20 
lem, and it is said that the stones were so hewed, 
and the beams so formed, that in all the seven 
years of its building there was never the sound of 
any tool heard upon the Temple. 

Temples, in ancient times, were not built like 25 
our churches to hold the people that worship ; for 
in early days the people stood in the outer courts, 
the temple proper being only a small inclosure* 


64 


which in heathen countries held idols, while among 
the Jews it held the Ark in the Holy of Holies and 
other sacred emblems in the Holy Place. These 
were two rooms, the Holy of Holies and the Holy 
. 5 Place. 

The walls of the Temple were of gold, marble, 
and cedar, and garnished with precious stones. 
The Altar of Incense stood in the Holy Place, and 
the Altar of Burnt Offering without in the Court 
10 of the Priests. While surrounding all the courts 
was a wall with towers of defense. When all was 
finished, Solomon sent out over the land to summon 
the Elders of Israel, the Heads over the Tribes, and 
the Chiefs of the Fathers, to come to Jerusalem to 
15 be present at the dedication. It was to be the grand- 
est ceremony that the Jews had ever witnessed. 

When all was ready, the procession formed, the 
priests brought up the Ark to the Temple, King 
Solomon and all the congregation sacrificing sheep 
20 and oxen before it. 

Reaching the Temple, the priests passed in, and 
placed the Ark in the Holy of Holies, and as they 
came out the Levites burst into singing, “ Praise 
the Lord, for his mercy endureth forever.” And all 
26 the instruments sent out ringing notes, and “ The 
glory of the Lord filled the house.” Then Solomon 
made the prayer of dedication, after which he 
blessed the people. 


65 


Next enormous offerings were made, and the 
people feasted fourteen days ; and from this time 
the Temple became the center of Jewish worship. 

Solomon next built for himself a magnificent 
palace, and here, seated in all his glory upon an 5 
ivory throne, he judged the people. He lived one 
thousand years before Christ, and as we know 
since his day there have been many temples and 
palaces built, but there has never been either 
temple or palace that in its description could rival lO 
King Solomon’s. His court, in its extravagance 
and luxury, was like the courts of other Eastern 
kings, and his reign was at the very height of the 
“ G olden Age ” of Hebrew history. 

I’eople came from far-away countries, to see his 15 
wealth and to hear his words of wisdom, and when 
the report was brought to the distant queen of 
Sheba, she wished to see for herself. Her home 
was probably in southern Arabia, fifteen hundred 
miles away, but the distance and perils by the2G 
way could not detain her, and she made the jour- 
ney to Jerusalem, perhaps in about seventy-five 
days. 

What a strange procession her caravan must 
have been, carrying the queen, her attendants, her 26 
gifts, and gift-bearers ! After the long journey, as 
the procession entered Jerusalem, how men, women, 
and children must have flocked out to see it! 


66 


Imagine it, a procession of camels, bearing a queen, 
surrounded by great state I 

She is the first female sovereign that we have 
read about in this book. Indeed, in the whole 
5 history of the world, there are very few women 
that ever reign as queens. 

In what a natural and charming way the queen 
of Sheba treated the thing that interested her most. 
First she heard^ to hear was easy, for Solomon’s 
10 fame was spread abroad ; next she came^ to see 
for herself if all was true ; next she saw^ and she 
was greatly surprised ; then she talked with him, 
and she confessed that the half had not been told 
her ; next she told others about it ; and last and 
15 most beautiful of all she worshiped God. She 
heard, she came, she saw, she talked, she told, and 
she worshiped. She made Solomon presents of 
spices, gold, and precious stones, and he, in return, 
gave her whatever she desired. We wish that 
20 we might have heard the story that she told on her 
return to Sheba about the king and the city of 
Jerusalem, with its horses and chariots, and gardens 
and vineyards, and palaces and Temple. 

Solomon wrote many songs and proverbs ; also, 
26about trees and fiowers, about beasts and fowls 
and fishes. It seems as if he must have known 
something about both botany and natural history. 
Solomon was greatly interested in commerce. 






QTJEKN OF SHEBA VISITS SCEOMON 




68 


He sent his ships to far countries, and they 
brought back to him spices and sandalwood, and 
silver and ivory, and apes and peacocks, and all of 
these added to the splendor as well as to the 
6 extravagance of his court. 

By common consent the first part of his reign 
forms one of the most fascinating stories in all 
Bible history. What other reign could be so 
magnificent ? And we would like to leave it 
10 right here, for the rest of his history forms such 
a sad contrast to that which we have told. 

A truly noble man resists temptation, and is at 
the end of his life a conqueror. Not so King 
Solomon, for at the very height of his power he 
16 yielded to temptation. He had been made soft by 
luxury and weakened by flattery. Heavy taxes 
had been levied, and the people would not pay 
them. Worst of all Solomon became an idolater. 
And so his glory vanished ; and when he died, 
20 and his son Rehoboam succeeded to the kingdom, 
it was not the strong and wealthy and united 
kingdom that David had left to Solomon, but it 
was instead weakened by discontent, taxation, and 
idolatry. 

25 We know the rest, — how that the kingdom was 
soon divided, and how later Samaria and Jerusalem 
were both conquered by the kings of Assyria and 
Babylonia. 


69 


Phoenicia — Hiram 

A QUAINT old English writer has asked the 
following question: Who was the first man that 
“durst be so bold, with a few crooked boards 
nailed together, a stick standing upright, and a 
rag tied to it, to adventure into the ocean ? ” 5 

His question has never been answered, but 
whoever the man was, he was a brave sailor, and 
perhaps he was a Phoenician. As far as we 
know, the Phoenicians were the first sailor folk, 
and as long ago as sixteen hundred years b.c. the 10 
Great Sea \yas dotted over with their adventurous 
sails. 

We find Phoenicia on the map a little strip of 
broken coast, perhaps one hundred and eighty 
miles long and twelve miles broad. It is just 15 
north of Palestine, and between the mountains 
of Lebanon and the Great Sea. The mountains 
furnished both timber and tall masts for the 
little boats, and the Great Sea over which they 
sailed them was as dear to the Phoenicians as the 20 
river Nile to the Egyptians. 

This sea is well named the Mediterranean, or 
the sea between the land as it lies between 
Europe on the north, Asia on the east, and 
Africa on the south. 

The Phoenicians were not a conquering nation, 


TO 

the people just formed themselves into little 
leagues, grouped about the cities, of which Tyre 
and Sidon were the principal ones. The one 
thing that they loved was the freedom of the sea. 
Sand in their little craft they constantly crossed 
and recrossed it, from Asia to Europe and over 
to Africa, venturing westward through the Pillars 
of Hercules over to Britain, while in the east the 
brave sailors reached far-away India. They were 
10 always seeking good harbors, and when they 
found them, they would in time make them 
Phoenician colonies. 

The Phoenicians bartered with the peoples of 
the different countries to which they sailed just 
16 as the Indians in our early history used to barter. 
The tin from Britain, the amber from the Baltic 
Sea, the silver from Spain, the gold from Arabia, 
and the slaves and ivory from the west coast of 
Africa were bartered for the spices, gold, and 
20 precious stones of India. Many islands in the 
Mediterranean Sea, among them Cyprus, Rhodes, 
Sardinia, and Corsica became Phoenician colonies, 
and eleven hundred years b.c., they founded 
Gades, or Cadiz, the oldest city in Spain. Their 
26 most famous colony, however, was Carthage in 
northern Africa. 

The Phoenicians were merchants rather than 
manufacturers, but they were clever workers too 


71 


in ivory, pottery, glass, bronze, gold, and silver, 
and in mining and in making cloth fabrics. .As 
they carried their products from place to place 
they gave their own arts to the world. They 
were the commercial traders, until the Greeks 6 
destroyed their power in the eastern Mediter- 
ranean Sea. 

The best thing that they gave was an alphabet 
of twenty-two letters, and this, varied a little in 
different countries, is the alphabet that is used to-io 
day. Every time we read or spell anything, we 
use one of the inventions given to the world by 
the old Phoenicians, perhaps eleven hundred years 
B.c. It is strange that they have left no books, 
but just the letters from which books are made. 16 
The kingdoms of the ancient world would have 
liked to own the brave little strip of land, with its 
hardy sailors ; and sometimes the Phoenicians paid 
tribute to these different countries, sometimes, too, 
as paid workmen, they helped them in building 20 
their cities and bridges. But what they best 
Bked was to be hired as sailors. 

An interesting story is told of Pharaoh-Necho, a 
^ng of Egypt, who lived about six hundred years 
B.c. Wishing to send a fleet around Africa, 25 
he employed Phoenician seamen to sail his ships. 

It is said that twice during . the long voyage the 
crew, fearing a famine^ landed^ drew up their 


72 


ships on shore, sowed grain, and waited for a 
harvest. 

The religion of the Phoenicians was very cruel : 
they worshiped the sun-god, Baal or “ Moloch 
6 the Horrid,” and the moon goddess, Astarte. They 
worshiped in groves and in high places, dancing 
and crying aloud, and cutting themselves with 
knives. They sacrificed human victims, sometimes 
even little children. They worshiped marine 
10 deities, too, for their gods must protect them 
upon the sea. Even the figureheads* of their 
ships were gods. Sidon, famous for its beautiful 
glass, was the first noted city, but it was over- 
thrown by the Philistines, and then Tyre became 
16 prominent. Its product was the royal Tyrian 
purple. This was a dye of the rarest and most 
beautiful dark crimson. It was very hard to get, 
for it was extracted in tiny drops from two shell- 
fish ; it was so costly that it was used only to 
20 color the robes of kings. 

Hiram was the most noted king of Tyre ; he was 
a good friend to both David and Solomon ; we have 
already read how much he did for King Solomon. 
He must have sent to him at least one very re* 
25 markable artificer, for he is described as «A cun- 
ning man of Tyre, skillful to work in gold, in silver, 
in brass, in iron, in stone, and in timber ; in purple, 
in blue, in crimson, and in fine linen ; also to grave 


73 


any manner of graving, and to find out every 
device ’which shall be put to him.” Solomon 
offered Hiram twenty cities in Palestine, but 
Hiram, in true Phoenician spirit, refused, choosing 
rather wheat and oil for food. Nebuchadnezzar 5 
attacked old Tyre and it held out bravely for thir- 
teen years. New Tyre, built on a neighboring 
island, became more splendid than the old city, 
and it was for centuries a great power in the 
ancient world. lO 


Greece 

We now leave Asia and, crossing the Great Sea, 
reach Greece, the most interesting little country in 
the world, the home of gods and wise men, of 
heroes and battles, and of art and literature. 

Its history opens with many delightful stories, — 15 
they are really only stories, — but they are so inter- 
woven with the earliest facts pertaining to Greece 
that we must know some of them. They are 
called myths • and legends. What sea have we 
crossed ? In what grand division is Greece ? 20 
Can you bound it and name some of the little 
islands near, and locate Asia Minor? 

The Greeks were a very happy people. There 
were no monarchs over them to make severe laws, 
and they knew no Brahmanism with its terrible 25 
castes. They were free — free as we are in the 


74 


United States. Indeed, we feel sure that our love 
for liberty, as well as for music, poetry, painting, 
and sculpture, came to us long ago from beautiful 
Greece. 

5 The Greeks called their country Hellas, and the 
islands about it were really “Patches of Hellas,’’ 
because their history fitted so perfectly into that 
of Greece itself. 

Greece was divided into a number of small 
10 states, each with its own hero. In order to under- 
stand the stories of these early heroes, we must 
know, at first, something about the gods, for they 
were always assisting in the adventures of the 
heroic age. 

15 The Greeks were very fond of nature and really 
lived in the open air. Looking up into the sky at 
the sun or moon or stars, or walking in the grove, 
or sailing over the water, they peopled them all 
with gods which they loved to think about and 
20 even to worship. 

Mount Olympus was the highest mountain in 
Greece, and upon its top, often covered with clouds, 
was supposed to be the home of the twelve greatest 
gods. When they visited the earth, they came 
25 through gates of clouds. 

The Greeks were a merry people and their 
religion consisted in songs and dancing and games 
^nd sacrifices. Every day their gods met in the 


75 


palace of their king, Jupiter, and there they 
discussed all the things that interested such 
important beings as gods. I suppose that the 
principal subjects were Jason and Hercules and 
Achilles and Ulysses, and the many adventures of 5 
these favorite heroes. 

In telling about the gods and heroes of old 
Grecian story, we shall use the Latin names. Both 
Greece and Rome had very much the same gods, 
and the Latin or Roman names are the moreio 
familiar. 

Jupiter, with majestic countenance and long 
beard, always sat upon his throne, and all except 
the Fates, who were more powerful than the gods, 
obeyed his will. He held a scepter and the terrible 15 
thunderbolts, and at his side was the eagle, the 
king among birds. 

When Jupiter was angry all Olympus trembled, 
for these gods quarreled sometimes, and in other 
ways acted very much like the people on earth. 20 
They were supposed, however, to know more and 
to be more beautiful. 

Jupiter’s proud wife, Juno, queen of the gods, 
sat upon her throne at his left. She, too, held a 
royal scepter while her favorite peacock was by her 25 
side. One day Jupiter had a terrible headache^ 
and he bade Vulcan, the blacksmith, strike his 
head with a hammer to relieve the pain. Vulcan 



. - --✓. .^ ■ •■-^*-^‘'H : V‘,.,! 




e>: 






JUPITER 



77 


struck, and lo ! out sprang Minerva, goddess of 
wisdom, fully armed with spear and helmet and 
beautiful shield. Minerva was the patroness of 
war, was not afraid to rush into battle when 
called upon to decide a contest; but she loved 6 
' peace, too, teaching her maidens various home 
duties, such as sewing, spinning, and weaving. 
Minerva is sometimes represented with her wise 
little owl at her side. 

Neptune could not remain on Mount Olympus lo 
for he had control of the sea. He used to drive 
over the waves in his chariot of many colors gleam- 
ing in the sunlight, with the merry rollicking water- 
nymphs sporting about him. When Neptune 
wished a • storm, he had only to strike the water 16 
with his trident, or three-pronged spear. 

Mars, completely equipped as a warrior, was 
the fierce, cruel god of war. 

Mercury, with winged cap and sandals, was the 
messenger of the gods, and in his invisible cloak 20 
he flew swifter than the wind. His magic wand 
had great power, and when people quarreled, 
if it were placed between them, they would be- 
come friends. One dajq seeing two fighting ser- 
pents, he threw it between them, and they at once 25 
twined lovingl}’’ about it; Mercury always kept 
them there to show what his wand could do. 

Venus, goddess of beauty, rose out of the ocean 


T8 

spray, and when the nymphs saw her they loved 
her for her beautyo 

Gentle breezes blew her to Mount Olympus, where 
she v/as attended constantly by the three Graces. 

6 Venus knew that she was charming and proudly 
rejected all her suitors ; Jupiter, to punish her for 
this, made her marry Vulcan, the lame blacksmith. 

Vulcan forged for Venus a magic girdle, and 
when she wore this, all who saw her instantly 
10 adored her. Many of the most beautiful statues 
in the world are dedicated to Venus. 

Cupid, the roguish little god of love, who shoots 
his arrows in every direction, was the son of Venus, 
and a mischievous boy indeed. 

15 Vulcan was a very busy and most useful god. 
His forges were in the caverns of volcanic moun- 
tains. There the fires were bright and always 
ready to heat the gold and silver and iron for 
armor, weapons, thunderbolts, thrones, chariots, 
20 and palaces. 

His workmen were the Cyclops, or one-eyed 
giants. Vulcan was always recognized by his 
hammer and forge. 

Apollo, glorious god of the sun, and his twin 
25 sister, Diana, goddess of the moon, presided over 
day and night. Far away in the east, Apollo had 
his palace of gold and silver and ivory, glittering 
with jewels. Every morning his young sister, 


79 


Aurora, goddess of ilie dawn, unbarred the doors of 
his palace and preceded him, strewing his path 
with roses. Boys lighted the way with torches. 
Apollo mounted his chariot, and, taking the reins, 
galloped his fiery steeds over the sky, attended by 6 
the rosy hours. 

The day passed, Apollo’s chariot disappeared 
below the western horizon. Then Aurora, as god- 
dess of the twilight, came out, lingering long 
enough to sprinkle with dew the thirsty flowers, lo 
and fasten the gates of the sun palace. 

Soon Diana appeared in robes of darkest azure. 
With a silver crescent in her hair, and in her silver 
chariot, with horses black as night, she drove over 
the heavens, attended by her starry maidens. 15 

When Apollo’s work was over, he would in- 
struct the nine Muses in the arts of music and 
poetry, and later join them in a merry dance. 
Diana, too, when not. in her chariot, would lead in 
the jolly chase under a hunter’s moon. She was20 
then very charming, with bow in her hand, and 
her quiver full of arrows slung over her shoulder. 

Ceres was the earth-mother. All through the 
summer days she was teaching the Greeks to pre- 
pare the soil for the seed ; and she was happy when 25 
she saw the rich harvests of grain and golden fruit. 
Ceres carried a lighted torch in her hand, and was 
adorned \^^ith wheat, poppies, and ears of corn. 


80 


Perhaps Vesta is the best and sweetest of all who 
dwelt on Mount Olympus. She was the goddess 
of the home and hearth. Her sacred fire was kept 
burning in every city, and when the Greeks went 
6 forth to make new homes, they always lighted 
their brands at her altar, guarding them carefully 
in a censer, until they could kindle their own fires 
wherever they chanced to roam. 

These twelve gods and goddesses were so human 
10 and so active that when we read of them they 
f appear like real people. If we will remember how 
they looked, we may recognize them to-day more 
easily than many true characters in ancient history. 

The Greeks made for them the most beautiful 
15 statues in the world, some of which are so perfect 
that they appear almost to move ; and we may 
see copies of them in almost every sculpture 
gallery into which we may go. 

Then, too, we find Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, 
20 Saturn, and Neptune as stars in the heavens, 
Jupiter, of course, is the largest planet, for he was 
king ; Mars, the reddest, for he was god of war 
and Venus most radiant and beautiful. 

Pluto reigned over the regions of the dead, and 
26 so, while he is one of the famous gods, he could 
not go to Mount Olympus. Besides these greater 
gods there were the nymphs and naiads and 
dryads and furies and graces and muse5. 


81 


When you study mythology, you will learn about 
them all. Now, however, when we read about the 
legendary heroes of Greece, we may recognize as 
old friends Jupiter and Juno, Minerva and Neptune, 
Mars and Mercury, Venus and Vulcan, Apollo and 6 
Diana, and Ceres and Vesta. 

‘‘ Who hear the gods, of them his prayers are heard.’^ 

— Iliad. 

Jason 

There was once a king of Thessaly, who had 
two children, Phryxus, a son, and Helle, a daughter. 
The king wickedly put away their mother, giving lo 
instead a stepmother who treated them very 
badly. Their own dear mother prayed to the 
gods on Mount Olympus to help them. In re- 
sponse, Mercury sent a winged ram with a golden 
fleece. The mother placed the children upon the 15 
ram, begging it to carry them to a place of safety. 
The ram with the children on its back vaulted into 
the air and fled away, farther and yet farther 
from Thessaly. Finally, in crossing the strait 
which separates Europe from Asia, little Helle 20 
let go, and falling off into the water was drowned. 
Ever since then the strait has been named the 
« Hellespont.” 

Phryxus, however, clung on until the ram landed 
him safely at Colchis, on the eastern shore of the 25 
Euxine Sea. 


Q 


^etes, king of Colchis, treated the boy so kindly 
that after sacrificing the ram to Jupiter, Phryxus 
gave to him the golden fieece. ^etes was so 
pleased with the gift that he placed it in a grove 
Sunder the care of a sleeping dragon. 

Phryxus and Helle, you remember, came from 
Thessaly in northern Greece. 

In another part of Thessaly lived a prince named 
Jason, whose uncle, Pelias, had stolen his throne. 
loPelias would give it up only on condition that 
Jason should bring to him the precious fleece of 
gold. 

Poor Jason I he was willing to try, but how 
could he go? 

15 The Greeks, who seldom ventured far out on the 
great deep, had no boats large enough to carry him 
and his brave young friends away over to the east- 
ern shore of the Black Sea. 

But Argos built hini a great ship that would 
20 hold forty men, and Jason sailed away accom- 
panied by Hercules and Theseus and many other 
bold young warriors. They called their good ship 
the Argo, from Argos, and they were the Argo- 
nauts, sailing on the Argonautic Expedition. 

25 They reached Colchis in safety, but only to find 
that the king would not give up the fleece until 
Jason had accomplished some adventures. 

He was to tame some wild bulls so perfectly 


83 


that with them he could plow a field. On this 
he must sow the teeth of a dragon which Cadmus 
had slain. 

King ^etes had a daughter Medea who was a 
sorceress and very unhappy at her. father’s court. 6 , 
Bhe fell in love with Jason and promised to help 
him if, in return, he would take her back with 
him to Greece. So Jason promised, and then with 
a charm which Medea had given him prepared to 
do his deed. lO 

At the appointed time the bulls rushed on, 
fiercely breathing fire from their nostrils, the sound 
being like the roar of a furnace. Jason advanced, 
and with his charm he soothed their rage, patted 
their necks, and slipped over them the yoke. Then 15 
he plowed the field and sowed the dragon’s teeth. 

At once a crop of armed men sprang up, bran- 
dishing their swords as they rushed upon Jason. 

His companions grew pale with fright and 
Medea trembled ; but Jason again used his charm, 20 
and then the armed men turned upon one another 
and soon they all were dead. 

Next, with the same charm, Jason lulled to sleep 
the dragon which guarded the fleece. Then seizing 
the treasure, and taking Medea and his young Argo- 25 
nauts, he escaped from Colchis on his good ship 
Argo. 

They arrived safely in Thessaly. Jason gave the 


84 


fleece to Pelias and took his throne, and then he 
dedicated the Argo to Neptune. 

Later he married Medea, but his life was not 
happy. However, it was soon ended ; for as the 
6 story goes he fell asleep one warm day under the 
shadow of the Argo, and while he slept, a bit of 
wood breaking olf from the prow struck him and 
killed him. 

This story is probably a legendary account of 
10 the first real voyage of discovery made by the 
Greeks to a far country. 


SELECTED LINES FROM THE SAILING OF THE ARGO 

And soon as by the vessel’s bow 
The anchor was hung up ; 

Then took the leader on the prow, 

26 In hands, a golden cup ; 

And on great father Jove did call, 

And on the winds, and waters all, 

Swept by the hurrying blast ; 

And on the nights, and ocean way, 

% And on the fair, auspicious day. 

And loved return at last. 

From out the clouds, in answer kind, 

A voice of thunder came ; 

And shook in glistening beams arounc 
26 Burst out the lightning flame. 


85 


The chiefs breathed free ; and at the sign, 
Trusted in t he power divine.” 

— Pindar, translated hy H. F. Cary, 

Hercules 

Another Greek hero was Hercules, who was said 
to be the strongest of men. Juno was so jealous of 
him that when he was a baby she sent two ser- 
pents to strangle him in the cradle ; but when the 
serpents attacked him, the baby squeezed them to 
death with its little hands. 

Hercules was especially renowned for the twelve 
difficult tasks which he performed. 

He had a cousin, Eurystheus, who had stolen his 
birthright. Eurystheus promised Hercules, how- 
ever, that if he would perform these tasks he should 
be carried after his death to Mount Olympus and 
live among the gods. Brave, strong Hercules deter- 
mined that he would perform them. 

At this time the woods of Greece must have been 
fdled- with very curious animals, and Hercules, by 
killing these, wished to deliver his country from 
real danger. 

The gods were much interested in him and be- 
stowed upon him valuable gifts to aid his cause. 
Jupiter sent him a shield; Minerva, a helmet and 
coat of mail ; Mercury, a sword ; Neptune, a horse ; 


5 

10 

15 

20 


86 


Apollo, a bow and arrow ; and Vulcan, a golden 
cuirass and brazen buskins. 

Surely few warriors have been so well armed. 
With what courage the young Hercules started on 
6 his twelve adventures. 

First he killed the Nemsean Lion. Then he 
attacked the Hydra, a hideous nine-headed serpenk 
Every time he crushed one head, another would 
spring into its place. At last he managed to cut 
10 and burn them all away. 

Next he hunted a stag and killed a boar. Then 
he was asked to cleanse some very filthy stables, 
which he did readily by turning into them the 
water of two rivers. 

15 The next feat was to destroy some horrible birds, 
which had brazen beaks and claws, and ready-made 
arrows for feathers, and which ate human flesh. 
Hercules sounded a brazen clapper, and as the 
frightened birds rose into the air, he killed them 
20 every one with his poisoned arrows. 

There was a beautiful white bull in the country, 
but it was mad and so did very much damage ; but 
Hercules subdued it so completely that he brought 
it home upon his shoulder. Ever after it wandered 
25 harmless all over Greece.* Next he tamed some 
horses, and then he killed Hippolyte, queen of a 
nation of women warriors called Amazons, and he 
was happy in securing Hippolyte’s magic girdle. 


87 


Far out on a western island .in the ocean that 
rolled about the world were some herds of purple 
oxen guarded by a two-headed dog, and Hercules 
went in search of them. In passing from the Great 
Sea out into the ocean, he threw up an immense a 
bowlder on either side of him, and these were called 
the “ Pillars of Hercules.” 

There was given him a golden cup in which to 
sail. Old Oceanus tried to frighten Hercules by 
shaking his hoary head; but the hero was notio 
daunted, and after securing the oxen returned safely 
.and sacrificed them to Juno. . Now there were but 
two things left to do. The first was to go to the 
ends of the earth and bring home some golden 
apples found on a tree, guarded by a dragon in the 15 
Garden of the Hesperides. 

Hercules brought the apples, and then faced his 
last and most difficult task, which was to bring 
from the gates of Pluto’s realm the three-headed 
dog Cerberus. With his native strength he over- 20 
came the terrible beast, and in spite of his struggles 
carried him to Eurystheus, and after showing him 
took him back again to guard the gates of Hades. 

Besides these “Twelve Labors^” Hercules as- ■ 
sisted in other adventures, all of which were sue- 26 
cessful. When he died, Jupiter enveloped him in a 
cloud and bore him away in a four-horse chariot 
to Mouut Olympus, where, having overcome all 


88 


earthly trials, he lives forever in bliss among the 
gods. 

SELECTED VERSES FROM HELLAS 

« Land of bards and heroes, hail ! 

Land of gods and godlike men, 

6 Thine were hearts that could not quail — 
Earth was glorious then ; 

Thine were souls that dared be free ; 

Power, and fame, and liberty. 

« Like the infant Hercules, 

10 Thou didst spring at once to power, 

With the energy that frees 
Millions in an hour ; 

From the wave, the rock, the glen, 

Freedom called her chosen then. 

15 Land where every vale and mountain 
Echoes to immortal strains. 

Light is round the stream and fountain, 

Light in all thy plains. 

Never shall thy glory set ; 

^0 Thou shalt be our beacon yet.” ^ 

— James Gates Percivai,. 

Homer 

Homer, the “ Poet of Heroes,” is supposed to be 
the author of the « Iliad ” and “ Odyssey,” the 


89 


oldest poems in Greece. They were stories of the 
Trojan War, and of the brave deeds of its many 
half-legendary heroes, among whom were Achilles 
and Ulysses. 

Homer may have been a schoolmaster, who, 6 
tired of teaching, roamed as a minstrel over the 
land. It is thought that he became blind. 
Perhaps he wrote, and perhaps he sung or recited 
to the music of the harp, poems of love and war ; 
and as his stories told of their early heroes, the 10 
Greeks delighted in him. 

Seven cities claimed to be his birthplace, and to 
him were paid divine honors, for he stirred his 
countrymen with his pathos and sublime descrip- 
tions. We love to think that this blind poet lived i? 
and wrote, and gave to Greece her infant literature. 

But it was so very long ago that we are not 
quite sure of the truth of all we read. Some 
* think that a single poet did not write the poems, 
but that they are ^ fragments of ballads sung by 26 
different wandering bards. Homer’s name may 
mean compiler ” ; perhaps he only collected the 
songs. But be this as it may, the “ Iliad ” and 
Odyssey ” are among the most wonderful poems 
that ever have been composed. They were studied 25 
by every Greek boy as a necessary part of his edu- 
cation, as they are to-day by every American boy 
who strives to be a classical scholar. The story 


90 


of the « Iliad ” really began in a quarrel among 
the gods on Mount Olympus. One day as they 
were feasting, Ate, the goddess of discord, who 
had not been invited, threw among them one 
6 of the golden apples from the Garden of the^f 
Hesperides. On the apple were the words, «To 
the fairest.” There sat Juno, queen of heaven; 
Minerva, goddess of wisdom; and Venus, goddess 
of grace. What wonder that the question arose as 
10 to which one the apple should belong, and how 
could it be answered ? Paris, the son of Priam, 
king of Troy, was a shepherd on Mount Ida, and 
before him the lovely trio appeared, asking him to 
decide. Juno offered him a mighty throne if he 
16 would vote for her; Minerva promised to make 
him the wisest of men ; and Venus, to give him 
the loveliest wife on earth. 

Paris held the apple long in his hand, and finally 
gave it to Venus. She was very proud and happy 
20 to receive it, and determined to keep her promise 
at once. She told Paris to build a ship, cross the 
sea, and visit at the court of Menelaus, king of 
Sparta. 

Now, before going farther, let us find on the map 
25 Troy, or Ilium, on the coast of Asia Minor, from 
which the “ Iliad ” is named, and from which Paris 
sailed, and Sparta, in southern Greece, where he 
was to visit; for it is between these two cities and 


f 



MmaavA 





92 


on account of the golden apple that the Trojan 
War was fought. 

Paris sailed to Sparta, and was received most; 
kindly by Menelaus. 

6 When Paris found that Helen, the wife of Mene- 
laus, was the most beautiful woman in the world, 
he carried her with all her treasures back to 
Troy. 

Then Menelaus was indignant, and Greek princes 
10 from far and near were called upon to assist 
him in bringing fair Helen home again. His 
brother, Agamemnon, as the head of a mighty host, 
sailed away over the ^gean Sea to attack Troy. 
The siege lasted ten years. Among Agamemnon’s 
15 warriors were the brave Achilles and the wise 
Ulysses. 

Hector, the son of Priam and brother of Paris, 
boldly led the Trojan host against the Greeks. 
The gods on Mount Olympus interfered constantly 
20 on both sides. For nine years the war continued 
without results, when a quarrel occurred between 
Achilles and Agamemnon, and with this the 
« Iliad ” opens. 

homer’s birthplace 

« Seven cities now contend for Homer dead, 

25 Through which the living Homer begged his bread.” 




« Can all the wreaths that crown his head 
Compensate now to Homer dead 
The living Homer’s want of bread ? 

Tet who would not a beggar be 

To be as much renowned as he ; 5 

I would, in sooth, ’twere offered me.’* 

Achilles 

Achilles, the principal Greek hero of the Trojan 
War, was the son of Peleus, king of Thessaly^ and 
the sea nymph, Thetis. 

When he was an infant, Thetis dipped him in 10 
the river Styx to render him invulnerable ; but as 
she held him by the heel, that remained vulnerable, 

Achilles was a beautiful youth, and was taught 
the arts of war, music, and eloquence, and when 
the Spartan warriors were preparing to go to Troy, 15 
a diviner told Hercules that the city never could be 
taken without the aid of Achilles. Thetis dis- 
guised her son as a woman, but he was discovered 
by Ulysses and joined the armament. 

Among the captives taken by Achilles was a 20 
beautiful maiden, and Agamemnon, the “ King 
of Men,” set his affections upon her. The laws of 
war required that Achilles should give her up to 
Agamemnon. Achilles was brave and generous. 


94 


but very passionate, and being provoked with Aga- 
memnon, left the camp. 

The Greeks had been successful ; but now the 
Irojans advanced, and the Greeks were driven to 
6 their ships. 

They begged Achilles to return and again lead 
them on to victory, but he was deaf to all en- 
treaties. Finally, however, he allowed his fr,iend 
Patroclus to put on his armor and to fight in his 
10 place ; but Hector killed Patroclus, and then the 
wrath of Achilles knew no bounds. Burning for 
revenge, he went at once into battle and killed 
brave Hector in single combat, dragging him in 
triumph in the dust behind his chariot. 

15 Then grief-stricken old Priam, Hector’s father, 
came unarmed into the camp of Achilles and 
begged the body of his son. Achilles received him 
graciously and granted his urgent request. 

Lion-hearted Achilles, young and beautiful, was 
20 the typical Grecian warrior of the early day. Troy, 
at last, was taken by stratagem. The Greeks pre- 
tended to go away, leaving as an offering to Mi- 
nerva a great wooden horse. The Trojans, thinking 
it a trophy, dragged it into the city. It was filled 
25 with armed men, and on a fatal night they crept 
out in the darkness and opened the gates to the 
Greek army outside. 

The Greeks were victorious, and Menelaus car- 


95 


ried Helen back to Trojo The story of the 
« Iliad ” ends with the death of Hector. 

The common tradition about the death of 
Achilles is as follows : he went into a temple with 
the daughter of Priam to be married to her, and 6 
her brother, Paris, who did not wish her to marry 
the Greek warrior, aimed an arrow at Achilles. 
struck his defenseless heel, and, of course, killed 
him. 

When Achilles was a boy, his mother, Thetis, lo 
asked him whether he would prefer a long, quiet 
life, or a short one, full of military glory ; he chose 
the latter, and Thetis prayed to Jupiter, and as we 
have read, her request was granted. 

Achilles absent was Achilles still.” 15 

— Iliad, 

Ulysses 

Besides the « Iliad,” Homer is said to have writ- 
ten the “ Odyssey.” It describes the home-coming 
of Ulysses after the Trojan War, and is called the 
Odyssey,” from his Greek name Odysseus. 

Ulysses, the king of Ithaca, was very happy in2v 
his home, and he did not wish to go to the war, 
for he must leave behind his fair young wife, Penel- 
ope, and his beautiful little son, Telemachus. He 
was a wise man, and could foresee that the war 
would be long and terrible. How.ever, as a king, he 25 


96 


did not know how to refuse ; but as we shall soon 
discover, he was a man of many devices. 

He pretended to be mad, and to do a foolish 
thing • he took a yoke of oxen and plowed the 
5 seashore. His friends knew his cunning, and to, 
prove him, placed his infant son in the way of the 
plow. Ulysses instantly turned the plow aside. 
Then they knew that he was feigning, and forced 
him to go to Troy. 

10 Poor Ulysses ! the struggle lasted ten years, 
and when it was over he and his friends started in 
several ships on their return to Ithaca. They had 
many remarkable adventures on the Great Sea, 
and it was twenty years before they reached 
15 home. 

First they were caught in a terrible storm ; then 
upon reaching the land of the dreamy lotus-eater, 
three of his men ate the lotus. The effect of this 
was to make them forget home and friends, and 
20 it was only by great effort that Ulysses dragged 
them back to the ships. 

They next arrived at the country of the Cyclops, ' 
one-eyed giants, and in exploring the island for food 
Ulysses found a cave stored with milk and cheese 
25 and lambs. These belonged to a huge and fierce 
giant ; but by one of his clever devices Ulysses 
succeeded in getting away safely with his com- 
panions. 


97 


Then for a month a visit was paid to ^olus, god 
of the winds, and his noisy, quarrelsome children. 

^olus liked Ulysses, and on his departure gave 
him bags full of the many kinds of winds which 
he would need to blow him safely over the waters. 6 
The gentle wind Zephyrus blew the ship along 
in safety, and after eight days sailing, at last Ithaca 
was in sight. 

Feeling now that all danger was over and home 
very near, Ulysses fell asleep. Then his curious lo 
and greedy sailors, thinking that the bags held 
treasures, opened them and out blew winds of 
various kinds, wildly tossing the boat back over 
the sea. Presently they reached the island of 
Circe. Circe was a witch who immediately trans- 16 
formed some of the men into swine. But Mer- 
cury gave Ulysses a charm, by the magic power of 
which Circe was obliged to change his followers 
once more to men. 

Then Circe, finding that she could not injure 20 
them, entertained them royally day after day, 
until they almost dreaded to embark again on 
the stormy sea. Their next visit was to Pluto’s 
abode, deep down under the earth, where they 
saw Ajax, Achilles, and Agamemnon. 25 

Now they must next pass the dangerous rocks 
where Sirens with sweet songs lured mariners td 
death. 


98 


Ulysses filled the ears of his crew with wax as 
the ship sailed past ; he, however, heard the voices 
of the Sirens safely by having himself tied to the 
mast. Ulysses had been warned by Oiree of two 
6 monsters, Scylla and Charybdis. 

He kept stout watch as he tried to pass between 
them ; but while the eyes of all were on Charybdis, 
the snaky Scylla caught six of his men and took 
them away. They were next shipwrecked, and 
10 borne on a raft to the island of the nymph 
Calypso. She received Ulysses kindly, and en- 
tertained him magnificently — indeed, she wished 
him to remain with her forever ; but Jupiter told 
her that she must send him away. So she had 
16 a raft prepared, and advising him how to meet 
the dangers which were yet before him, she gave 
him a favoring gale. After encountering yet other 
hardships, Ithaca was reached at last. 

But what had become of faithful Penelope during 
20 all these years ? More than a hundred young suitors 
had come to her palace and wished to marry her; 
but she waited and hoped for her husband’s return, 
and so used every art to delay them. She was en- 
gaged in weaving a robe and promised to make 
25 her choice among the suitors when it was finished. ■ 
Day after day she worked on the robe, and in the 
night she' undid the work. Thii^ was called 
“Penelope’s Web.” So many years had passed 


99 


that Penelope was becoming discouraged, and 
had decided to choose from among the suitors. 
She was preparing to hold a great festival, and 
had promised to give her hand to him who 
should shoot an arrow from the great bow of 5 
Ulysses through twelve rings. 

The suitors tried in turn, but without success. 
Then spoke a beggar who had appeared before 
the palace, humbly asking to be permitted to try, 
and he said, “ Beggar as I am, I was once a soldier, lo 
and there is yet some strength in these old limbs 
of mine.” 

The suitors objected, but Telemachus, the son of 
Ulysses, to gratify the old man, bade him try. So 
the pretended old beggar, who was really Ulysses 15 
in disguise, drew th« string and sped the arrow 
unerringly through the rings. Then turning upon 
the suitors with the remaining arrows he killed 
them every one. He then revealed himself to 
his faithful Penelope and to his son Telemachus ; 20 
again he mounted his throne and ruled wisely 
ever afterward. 

The “Iliad” and the “Odyssey” are full of 
descriptions of noble characters and great actions. 
In our own day. Dr. Schliemann, a German explorer, 26 
has found the ruins of Ilium, or Troy, and among 
other things has dug up some ornaments which he 
feels sure were worn by King Priam. 


100 


An ancient poet describes how the Greeks were 
affected when they recited the “ Iliad ” and “ Odys- 
sey ” ; “ When that which I recite is pathetic, my 
eyes fill with tears ; when it is awful or terrible, 
6 my hair stands on end and my heart leaps ; the 
spectators also weep in sympathy and look aghast 
with terror.” 

No wonder is it that Greece held as^its most 
precious treasures the poems of Homer. 


Theseus 

lO In early times every city of Greece had its 
hereditary king, supposed to be descended from the 
gods. 

Theseus, the hero of Athens, was almost as 
strong as Hercules, whose praises were sung every- 
16 where ; for had he not destroyed the monsters and 
other evil-doers that had infested the country ? 
Theseus admired Hercules and longed to be like 
him. Among his early adventures was the killing 
of the robber Procrustes. 

20 Procrustes had two iron bedsteads, one long and 
one short, and to these he tied all travelers who 
fell into his hands. The tall men he cut down to 
fit the short bedstead, while he pulled out the 
short men to fit the long one. Of course Theseus 
26 killed Procrustes on one of his own bedsteads. 


101 


At this time Athens was sorely troubled by a 
yearly tribute of seven boys and seven girls which 
the city was obliged to pay to Minos, king of 
Crete. These children were sent to Crete to be 
devoured by a monster called the Minotaur, half 6 
bull and half man. This creature was kept in such 
a winding labyrinth that whoever was once inside 
could never find his way out. 

Theseus determined to kill the monster, and so 
offered himself as one of the seven youths to be lo 
sent to Crete. The boat in which they were sent 
carried a black sail, on account of its terrible 
mission ; but Theseus promised his father that if he 
succeeded in slaying the Minotaur, he would hoist 
a white sail on the way home. 

Theseus reached Crete in safety, and there won 
the love of the fair Ariadne, the daughter of King 
Minos. 

Ariadne gave him a sharp sword and a skein of 
thread, by means of which, after much unwinding 20 
and winding, he might find his way safely in and 
out of the labyrinth. Theseus slew the Minotaur, 
escaped from the labyrinth, and with his lonely 
bride started for home. 

Stopping on an island, he treacherously left 25 
Ariadne sleeping there and sailed away for Athens. 

On approaching the coast of Greece, Theseus 
forgot to raise the white sail. The old king had 


102 


long been watching for his son’s return. He saw 
the black sail and, supposing that Theseus was 
dead, he killed himself in terrible grief ; thus 
Theseus, ori landing, immediately became king. 

5 In his next adventure he tried, like Hercules, to 
conquer the Amazons, and his famous battle with 
these huge women warriors was fought in the very 
center of Athens. 

After many other strange doings, Theseus lost 
10 the favor of his people and was killed. 

Hundreds of years later, when the Greeks were 
fighting their greatest battle at Marathon, the 
shade of Theseus appeared, and urged them on to 
their wonderful victory over the Persian host. 

15 To-day, in Athens, just below the rocky Acropo- 
lis, we find the ruins of a grand temple called the 
Theseum, and it is said to be the tomb of Theseus, 
the hero king of Athens. 


Lycurgus 

Spakta was, at first, the capital of one of the 
20 weakest little states of Greece ; but about 900 b.c. 
a certain Lycurgus appeared, destined to become 
the famous Spartan lawgiver. 

Seeing how badly Sparta was governed, and 
wishing to make new and better laws, Lycurgus 
26 traveled far and wide to learn how other countries 


103 


were ruled. He visited at the court of King Minos 
of Crete, and also went to India to study about 
Brahmanism. Then, coming back to Greece, he 
visited the oracle at Delphi, and prayed to know its 
will concerning him. Calling him “ Beloved of the 
Gods,” it replied that Apollo had heard his request, 
and had promised that his code of laws should be 
the finest in the world, and the state that obeyed 
them the best governed in Greece. 

Happy Lycurgus ! he immediately returned to 
Sparta and, asking thirty nobles to help him, pre- 
pared to govern the city. 

In order to understand the laws of Lycurgus, let 
us first see how they influenced every single Spar- 
tan from the very beginning of his life. The tiny 
baby was examined to find if it was sound and 
well ; if not, it was exposed to die in a mountain 
glen, for only strong men were needed in Sparta. 
If the child lived, when he was seven years old, he 
was obliged to leave his father’s home, live in a pub- 
lic institution, and be cared for by a boy trainer. 
Here he was taught reading and martial music, 
and practiced gymnastics. On festival days, he 
was whipped before the altar in order to learn to 
bear pain without a moan ; for a Spartan boy 
would rather die than cry out. Perhaps you have 
read the story so often told of a boy who stole a 
fox and hid it under his tunic. The fox was very 


5 

10 

15 

20 

25 


104 


hungry, and the boy allowed it to tear out his \^iials 
before showing by the movement of a muscle that 
he was in pain. 

Boys always ate at the public tables, fifteen 
6 messing together in the barracks. While the older 
men talked over public affairs, the boys must sit 
like statues unless some one spoke to them; and 
about the only remark that was ever directed to 
them was, “Look you, sir, nothing said here goes 
10 out there.” 

Meat was given to them only on holidays. The 
ordinary food was meal, cheese, and figs, and a 
black broth so bitter that it needed a very hungry 
boy to eat it. 

16 When the Spartan was thirty years old he was 
obliged to marry ; but he must still live and eat in 
the barracks, and not until he was sixty was he 
released from the hard life. 

The only money allowed was in great iron 
20 weights; even the sum of a hundred and forty dol- 
lars would need either a good-sized room to hold it 
or an ox team to carry it about. For a Spartan 
must neither hoard his money nor buy “foreign 
trumpery” ; for him there was neither gold nor 
26 ivory nor carpets nor soft cushions nor any of the 
luxuries so much enjoyed by other people. 

In conversation three words must never be used 
if two would answer. A “Laconic” style, it was 


105 


called, the word being taken from Laconia, the 
little country of which Sparta was the capital. I 
wonder how the boys and girls of our day would 
enjoy using a Laconic style ! 

The one idea of Lycurgus was to make a nation 
of soldiers who would prefer death to military dis- 
honor. The men were trained in small companies 
so that every one should fight well. Mothers gave 
to their sons when departing for war a shield, say- 
ing, “With it or upon it”; that is, either bring it 
back or as a dead warrior be brought home upon it. 

If, in flight, a soldier lost his shield, he never 
ngain showed his face in Sparta. 

And the Spartans did become the best soldiers 
in Greece, and the whole city was a camp. Other 
rities were protected by walls; Sparta’s defense 
was her camp of sturdy warriors, whose simple 
lives and perfect drill made them a power every- 
where in war times. Five ephors, chosen yearly, 
governed the city, and with such stern sway that 
even kings obeyed them. 

A story is told of a king, who, on returning 
from a journey, dared to dine with his wife, and 
for doing this just once he was severely punished 
by the ephors. Without their consent, the Spar- 
tans were not allowed to visit other lands, and 
minstrels, merchants, and trading ships from other 
countries came very rarely to Sparta. 


5 

10 

15 

20 

25 


106 


Lycurgus firmly established all his laws ; then 
making the people promise to keep them until his 
return, he again went to consult the oracle at 
Delphi. This time it told him that Sparta would 
6 be perfect so long as it obeyed him. So he decided 
never to go back. Perhaps he went into exile, or 
else starved himself to death ; but for five hundred 
years Sparta was faithful to its lawgiver. 

Some have doubted the story of Lycurgus ; but 
10 whether he really lived or not, these laws were 
enforced about 900 b.c., and they did make famous 
warriors of the Spartans. 

The Delphic Oracle 

Besides the poems of Homer which were sung 
and recited in every town, the independent states 
16 of Greece had three things which they shared 
together: the amphictyonies, the oracles, and the 
games. 

Perhaps in these we may compare Greece with 
our own country ; for we know that while each 
20 state has its governor, there are some important 
things about which all the United States must 
consult and agree. Each state, therefore, sends its 
representatives to Washington, and they with the 
President decide our great matters. 

26 It is true that the Greeks had no president: 
had this been the case, its union would have been 


107 


more complete ; but the three things which they 
strongly held in common formed a firm bond. 

First, the amphictyonic council. Amphictyony 
is a long word, but it means simply a “ league of 
neighbors.” Very early amphictyonies were formed 6 
all over Greece. They were councils of tribes 
formed to prevent cruel war and to protect some 
favorite temple. 

The most famous amphictyony was at Delphi, 
and it not only protected the temple of Apollo lo 
there, but it also regulated the affairs of all Greece. 

The oracles became a second bond of union. 
They were responses given by the gods to those 
who asked them what it was best to do about 
some great venture. 15 

We have seen in the life of Lycurgus how 
the oracle decided everything for him. Like all 
messages from Mount Olympus, the responses were 
spoken usually through something in nature. 

Apollo was the god by whom the response was 20 
generally sent — perhaps because he ruled over 
life and light, and also presided over the Muses. 

Many shrines were dedicated to him, the most' 
celebrated one being at Delphi. Here, on the side 
of Mount Parnassus, there was a rocky crevice, from 26 
which arose an intoxicating odor, and whenever 
any passers-by inhaled this, they were seized at 
once with convulsive ravings. So it was decided 


108 


that the vapors must be the breath of Apollo, 
and any one wishing to receive a message from 
him had only to inhale it. 

Over the chasm a beautiful temple was built to 
5 the sun god, within which the Greeks placed his 
golden statue with a fire always burning near. On 
the exact spot over which the gas issued from the 
clefts, a sacred, three-legged stool, called a tripod, 
was placed. 

10 A Delphian priestess, having spent three days in 
bathing and fasting, would take her seat upon the 
tripod and inhale the vapors. As she breathed 
it in, it was thought that she became inspired. 

She uttered strange sounds which the priest 
16 standing near her would interpret to mean any- 
thing he chose. He would make just such a re- 
sponse as he thought best to the anxious people, 
who perhaps had come from very far to consult 
the oracle. 

20 Whatever the answer, it must be obeyed fully or 
' the questioner could never again be happy. Such 
was the confidence which the Greeks placed in 
this holy oracle. 

The Olympic Games 

The third link which united the Greeks In a 
25 bond of brotherhood was their games. These were 
a series of a^thletic sports at first performed at the 


109 


tombs of their ancestors. The Greeks believed 
that the dead could enjoy the same sights which 
they had enjoyed while living. 

Later, the games became religious festivals held 
'xt the shrine of some god, who, they thought, was 5 
always present. 

The Greeks reckoned time from the first Olym- 
piad, or the beginning of the Olympic games, 776 b.c. 

They were held at Olympia. Here was Jupiter’s 
most splendid temple and his statue, which was one 10 
of the “ Seven Wonders of the World.” The ruins 
seen to-day at Olympia are more interesting than 
those at Athens. 

Heralds proclaimed the games, and from all parts 
of the world people fiocked to enjoy them. If a 16 
war was raging, a truce would be made long 
enough for all to go and return in safety. The 
games commenced and ended with solemn sacrifices. 
To be admitted ^to the contest, a man must prove 
that he was a free Hellene, and that he never had 20 
committed a sin against god or man. 

The Olympian games lasted for five days. The 
contests consisted of wrestling and boxing, ano 
foot- and chariot-racing, the contestants with a 
certain charm and beauty of motion doing every- 25 
thing to increase their muscular strength. 

The horse- and chariot-races held the highest 
rank, and the honor of the victory always be^ 


110 


longed to the owner of the horse or chariot, 
whether he was present or absent. 

The victor was crowned with an olive garland 
cut from a tree in the sacred grove of Olympus. 
5 Then a palm branch was placed in his hand, and 
his name proclaimed abroad by a herald. 

Many honors awaited him on returning to his 
native city. Sometimes a breach would be opened 
in the city wall so as to receive him as a conqueror. 
10 Orators lauded his victory, poets sang his praises, 
sculptors carved his statue, and he wore his victor’s 
wreath all through his life. 

The other games were the Delphian, Nemaean, 
and Isthmian. In some of these, literary contests 
16 were held in which poets recited their finest verses 
and artists displayed their masterpieces. So in 
both bodily and literary contests the Greeks, 
through their games, were inspired to do beautiful 
things. 

Solon 

20 Sparta, founded by the Dorian tribes, and 
Athens, by the Ionian, were the most renowned 
cities of Greece ; indeed, their life and quarrels 
form a large part of Greek history. 

We have spoken of military Sparta and of Ly- 
26curgus, the famous lawgiver. His laws and the 
army which resulted from keeping them were all 


Ill 


that Sparta gave to the world. Not so with 
lovely little Athens. Her people were fond of 
travel and commerce ; they had a wonderful sense 
of beauty, and loved poetry, music, and sculpture. 

In legendary days, Neptune and Minerva had a 6 
contest as to which should name the city ; for the 
privilege was to be given to the one who could 
bring forth the most useful thing. 

Neptune struck the ground with his trident, and 
a strong and noble horse sprung up. Wise lo 
Minerva produced an olive tree, and the judge 
felt sure that Neptune had won ; for was not a 
horse always more useful than a tree ? 

Then Minerva told them that an olive tree could 
furnish wood to build a house, fuel for lire, its 16 
fruit would give food and oil, and clothing could 
be made from the liber. 

So the Greeks knew that they could better live 
without a horse than an olive tree. 

Minerva, having gained the victory, called the 20 
city Athens from her Greek name “ Athene.” Her 
shrine was placed on the Acropolis, a flat-topped 
rock rising one hundred and flfty feet above the 
plain. 

In legendary days Athens was governed by 26 
kings, and later by archons who ruled the city 
very badly. They attacked the nobles, treated the 
people as slaves, throwing them into prison or 



THE ACROPOLIS RESTORED 


























113 


selling them for debt. Indeed, the whole city was 
given over to terrible misrule. 

^ Then Draco was called upon to assist in restor- 
ing order. He made a code of laws which only 
reduced the old rule to a simpler form, for every 5 
crime was punished by death. In fact, his laws 
were said to be written in blood. 

Now Solon appeared, the first of the many fa- 
mous men whom Greece has given to the world. 

Though descended from the early kings, Solon lo 
was very poor ; but he gained a fortune by com- 
merce. Then, like other scholars of his day, he 
traveled in the East to study the habits of other 
countries ; he became so learned that he was called 
the first of the “Seven Wise Men” of Greece. 15 

The others were Periander, Pittacus, Chilo, 
Thales, Cleobulus, and Bion. These “Wise Men” 
or sages were poets and philosophers, and their 
short and pithy sayings, called proverbs, helped to 
decide the questions that absorbed the attention 20 
of the thinking Greeks. 

Solon, besides being one of the sages, became a 
poet, statesman, and general. He was loved by 
the poor and trusted by all. In his time the island 
of Salamis had just been taken from Athens and 25 
the city could not get it back. It seemed so absurd 
to. try that they said that any one who made the 
attempt should be punished by death. 

f: 


114 


Solon, like Ulysses, pretended to be mad and 
went about reciting warlike, poems, until his coun- 
trymen were so stirred that they made a brave 
attack to recover their precious Salamis, and they 
5 succeeded. Then the Athenians were proud ol 
Solon, and made him tyrant over Athens for two 
years. The word ‘‘ tyrant,” in those days, simply 
meant “ ruler ” ; for it was in later times that rulers 
abused their rights, and became what we now call 
10 tyrants. 

Solon was asked to make a new code of laws. 
He first repealed Draco’s harsh rules and relieved 
those who w^ere in debt. He forbade parents to 
sell their children, instead of which they were 
15 to teach each boy a trade. When the fathers were 
old, the sons, in return, must care for them. 

Solon divided the people into four classes, accord- 
ing to their birth, and every free-born Athenian 
was to have a vote in the assembly. In every way 
20 he tried to make the government so free that 
nobles could not tyrannize over the people. Be 
sides, he wished them to be .afraid to do wrong 
and to do right from a sense of honor. 

When he was asked one day how injustice could 
*25 be banished from a republic, he replied, “By 
making all men feel the injustice done to each 
man.” 

These are two of Solon’s best known proverbs : 


115 


“ He that tells lies in sport will soon tell them in 
earnest,” and Look to the end of life.” Both 
Draco’s and Solon’s laws were written on wooden 
blocks, and* placed in different parts of the city 
where all might, read them. The city prospered 
under Solon’s wise rule. But like all great men he 
could not satisfy everybody. The nobles blamed 
him for doing too much, and the common people 
for not doing enough. 

Solon himself said that while he had done his 
best, he knew that his laws were not perfect. 

He made the people take an oath that they 
would keep them for ten years. Then, to get 
away from all his troubles, he traveled in the 
East. When he came back, his nephew, Pisis- 
tratus, ruled over Athens. 

Pisistratus was a proud man, but he treated 
Solon very kindly, often asking his advice when 
he was perplexed. 

But Solon did not live very long. At his own 
request, his body after death was burned, and the 
ashes scattered around the island of Salamis, which 
as a young man he had won for Athens. 

Plato later said of Solon, “ If he had loved poetry, 
Homer would not have been alone in his glory.” 
But Solon loved right laws, and just at this 
time in Athens they were needed far more than 
poetry. 


5 

10 

15 

20 

25 


116 


CONSTITUTION OF A STATE 

« What constitutes a state ? 

Not high-raised battlement or labored mound, 
Thick wall or moated gate ; 

Not cities fair, with spires and turrets crowned ; 

6 No : men, high-minded men, 

With powers as far above dull brutes endued. 

In forest, brake, or den. 

As beasts excel cold rocks and brambles rude — 
Men who their duties know, 

10 Know, too, their rights, and knowing, dare maintain ; 
Prevent the long-aimed blow. 

And crush the tyrant, while they rend the chain.” 

— Sir William Jones. 

Croesus 

Solon, on one of his journeys, visited Lydia, 
the richest province in Asia Minor, for it contained 
15 mountains full of precious ores, and beautiful rivers 
and valleys. 

Croesus was the last and most splendid king 
of Lydia. From his gold mines and the wealth of 
his cities he had so much money that his name 
20 passed into the proverb, « As rich as Croesus.” 
Croesus welcomed Solon to his court and proudly 
showed him all his treasures, but he was amazed 
because Solon seemed so indifferent. However, he 
was determined to force a compliment from Solon, 


IIT 

so he asked the wise man, “ Who do you think is 
the happiest man on the earth ? ” 

Solon replied, “ Tellus, an honest man, who was 
neither rich nor poor, but had good children and 
died fighting bravely for his country.’^ 

Croesus was surprised and vexed at the reply, but 
added, “Who do you think is the next -happiest ? ” 
“ Two brothers,” replied Solon, “ who were so duti- 
ful to their mother that when she wanted to go to 
the temple of Juno, they yoked themselves to a car 
and drew her there, and then lay down to sleep 
and died without pain or grief.” 

Croesus could stand it no longer, and said, “Do 
you not think me a happy man ? ” “ Ah ! ” replied 

Solon, “ call no man happy until he is dead.” 
Croesus was mortified, and neglected Solon. 
Croesus was so rich that he was not afraid of 
anybody, even of the great Cyrus, king of the 
Medo-Persian Empire. Cyrus was conquering the 
countries east of Asia Minor, and very gradually 
was approaching Lydia. Croesus, determining to 
attack him, consulted the oracle. The answer was 
that when he should make the attack a mighty 
kingdom would be overthrown. 

Croesus, with his usual pride, thought that the 
oracle intended that he was to overthrow the Medo- 
Persian Empire. He made a fatal mistake. Instead, 
Cyrus, the great king of that empire, conquered Lydia, 


10 

15 

20 

25 


118 


and prepared to burn Croesus near tbe gate of 
his capital city, Sardis, As the story goes, the 
pyre was erected and Croesus bound upon it. Just 
as they were about to set fire to it, Croesus called 
6 three times, “ Solon ! Solon ! Solon ! ” 

Cyrus was watching in the distance, and asked 
upon what -god or man Croesus was calling in his 
trouble. Croesus replied that it was a man whom 
he wished every monarch knew ; and then he told 
10 the story of Solon. 

This so interested Cyrus that he at once re- 
leased Croesus and took him home with him to 
Persia, and ever after they were the warmest 
friends. 

16 So we find that in other countries, as well as in 
* Greece, Solon’s words were remembered ; and even 
to-day we may recall with much interest the laws 
of Solon, the first wise man of Greece. 

Marathon 

Marathon, Thermopylae, and Salamis are the 
20 great battles of the Graeco-Persian War which we 
have now to fight. Every war must have a cause. 
To discover the real meaning of this conflict, we 
begin our story with the rule of Pisistratus in 
Athens. 

26 Pisistratus was a kinsman of Solon. He called 
himself the “ Friend of the People.” At first he 


119 


was so haughty that they did not like him; but 
after he had been banished from the city two or 
three times, his rule became mild and wis^ and 
they became really fond of him. 

After his death, his sons, Hippias and Hipparchus, 5 
were proud and insolent, and the people deter- 
mined that they should continue in power no longer. 

So a conspiracy was made to get rid of both men. 
On a festival day, when every one carried myrtle 
boughs as well as swords and shields, the conspira-io 
tors concealed daggers in their boughs. They treach- 
erously killed Hipparchus', but Hippias escaped. 

Seeing that the people hated him, and fearing 
every day that they would try to kill him, Hippias 
fled from Athens. After long wandering, hei5 
reached the court of Darius, king of Persia. 

Now let us see what was the empire over which 
Darius ruled. 

For nearly two hundred years the Meaes and 
Persians had been growing strong in western Asia, 20 
and when they united and formed the Medo-Persian 
Empire everything fell before its conquering power. 

Persia was an empire of immense extent, and 
Into one little corner of it the whole of Greece 
might easily have been placed. 26 

The Persians had built great post-roads from 
Susa, the capital, all over the empire, with ferries 
and bridges and relays of horses for couiners. 


120 


In traveling over these roads, one would meet 
nobles, peasants, Arab steeds, and donkeys laden 
with, skins of oil and wine, and caravans wind- 
ing slowly along. Truly, as one has said, “ Persia 
6 helped to set the world a-mixing ! ” 

The Persians thought their king divine, and 
royal secretaries wrote down his laws as he spoke 
them. Though he had power to do nearly every- 
thing else, he could never change these, and so 
10 arose the proverb, ‘‘As fixed as the laws of the 
Medes and Persians.” Satraps were appointed 
as governors over the provinces. They were 
watched by men called the “ Eyes and Ears ” ; 
and if the “ Eyes and Ears ” reported the slightest 
16 wrong deed, a satrap was punished by death. 

The king was attended in war by ten thousand 
Immortals, his sacred guard, their armor glitter- 
ing with silver and gold. They were the finest men 
chosen from the nations over which he held sway. 
20 Darius was king of Persia. This monarch was 
very curious about the new unknown continent 
of Europe, and he had already obtained there 
two provinces, Thrace and Macedon. 

It was just at this time that the traitor Hippias 
26 went to the Persian court and told his story. 
Hippias begged the king to avenge the death of 
Hipparchus, by conquering Greece and restoring 
his power in Athens. 



yiik^o*, so 35 40 45 lion^tude 50 ^East from 55 Xiondon 



122 


Darius thought as Greece was so small that this 
would be an easy thing to do. 

It is said that Darius had once seen a beautiful 
Greek girl, a slave, walking very erect, carrying a 
6 pitcher of water on her head, and leading a horse 
by a bridle which she carried over her arm, while 
at the same time her hands were busy with her 
distaff. He had often recalled the girl, and 
had wished to see more of those handsome Greeks 
10 about whom he had heard so miich. 

So .he decided to attack the country. Hearing 
of the plan of the Persians, a single Greek deter- 
mined to go to Athens and Sparta and implore 
their aid against the Persians. 

16 He went with two boxes of plates on which was 
engraved a map of the world as then known. 
What a little world it must have been ! and on the 
map it looked quite easy to march from Sardis 
to Susa! But when the Spartan king found that 
20 it would take three months, he would not consent; 
and when the Greek tried to bribe him, his little 
daugliter cried out, Go away ! father, this man 
will do you harm ! ” Cleomenes took this as the 
response of an oracle, and would not assist. 

26 Then the Greek went to Athens, and the Athe- 
nians listened more willingly. They promised to go 
against the Persians, and helped at once by assisting 
the cities of Asia Minor to capture and burn Sardis. 


128 


Then Darius, the great king, indignantly in* 
quired what sort of men these Greeks were who 
dared oppose him. Seizing his bow and arrows, 
he shot into the air praying, “0 supreme god, 
grant that I may avenge myself on the Athe- 6 
Ilians ! ” He also caused a slave to repeat to 
him before every meal, “Master, remember the 
Athenians.” 

The request of Hippias and the burning of Sar- 
dis had brought on the struggle. Darius at onceio 
raised troops from all over his broad empire to 
send against Greece, under the command of his son- 
in-law, Mardonius. The land troops were defeated 
by the Thracians, and the fleet was wrecked by 
a violent storm while trying to get around 16 
Mount Athos. 

Darius then sent heralds to demand from the 
Grecian cities earth and water, — tokens of their 
submission. The little cities were frightened, and 
promptly gave the heralds what they asked. 20 

Not so proud Athens and Sparta ! They threw 
the envoys into pits and wells, bidding them help 
themselves to “ earth and water.” 

Darius was furious and vowed vengeance, and 
by the beginning of the year 490 b.c. a new army 25 
of one hundred and twenty thousand men was 
ready to march upon Greece. 

It was to be led by Datis and Artaphernes, and 


12 ^ 


the traitor Hippias promised to show them the 
shortest way to Athens. 

There was no time to be lost, and as six hundred 
ships filled with Persian troops sailed West over 
5 the ^gean Sea, the Athenians displayed great 
energy. Miltiades, the general to whom the com- 
mand was given, used all his energies to raise an 
army. 

Slaves became soldiers by being promised their 
10 liberty, if Athens should win. 

Pheidippides, the swiftest runner, was sent to 
Sparta to ask for help. He ran the distance of 
one hundred and fifty miles in thirty-six hours, 
but only to be told that among the Spartans there 
15 was an old law which prevented the soldiers from 
going to war till after the full moon. So Sparta, 
with her splendid troops, refused to give assistance. 

The war could not wait for a full moon, for by 
that time the Persians might overrun all Greece. 
20 With the exception of the Platseans, who were 
grateful to Athens because of a former kindness, the 
Athenians alone must now meet the Persian onset. 

The Persian fleet appeared in the sheltered bay 
of Marathon, twenty-two miles from Athens. 
26 Around the bay was a crescent-shaped plain, and 
back of it were hills. One hundred and ten thou- 
sand Persians, from over six hundred different 
nations, disembarked with all the panoply of war. 


125 


Even their slaves were more in number than all 
the soldiers of the Greek army ! There were foot- 
soldiers with bows and short spears, and gayly 
decked horses with their riders ready to throw 
their javelins in every direction. 6 

Darius had ordered that they should win the 
battle first, then march on to Athens, plunder and 
burn the city, and bring the Athenians in chains to 
Persia. They had brought with them the chains, 
and also a great block of white marble which wasio 
to be left on the battle-field as their monument of 
success. ^ 

After landing, the Persians spread themselves 
along the narrow valley, their best soldiers standing 
firm in the center. 16 

Sheltered by the hills back of the Persians, Mil- 
tiades drew up his little army of Greeks, only ten 
thousand strong. He lined his troops up in ranks 
as long as those of Persia, but having one-tenth the 
number of the Persians, his ranks were far less deep. 20 
The Greeks, nerved to great energy, made their 
sacrifices, invoking the aid of their gods and heroes, 
and without waiting for the Persians to attack 
them, at a signal from Miltiades they started at 
full run down the hill. 26 

The Persians were crowded so closely together 
on the narrow plain that they could not hurl their 
javelins. Many of them threw away their weapons 


126 


and engaged in a hand-to-hand fight with the 
Greeks. The Greeks, having plenty of room, thrust 
their spears to right and to left, and the wicker 
shields of the Persians could not withstand them. 

6 In the beginning, the Greeks charged like a tem- 
pest upon the wings of the Persian army, and when 
these were broken, they closed upon its center. 

Soon men and horses were rolling and trampling 
upon one another in wild confusion and the Per- 
losians were fleeing to their ships. 

Before this the Greeks always had advanced 
slowly into battle. Herodotus says, “ These were 
the > first Greeks that ever ran to meet the foe and 
the first that beheld without dismay the garb and 
1 C' armor of the Medes.” And such faith had they in 
their hero-king, Theseus, that many believed that 
during the battle his gigantic form hovered over 
the Athenians and urged them on to victory. 

The Persians left six thousand four hundred 
20 dead upon the field. Datis was killed, and the old 
traitor Hippias died of his wounds. 

Only one hundred and ninety-two Greeks were 
slain, and over them an enormous mound of earth 
was raised, crowned by ten marble columns, bear- 
26 ing their names. A part of this mound may be 
seen to-day on the battle-field of Marathon, very 
near Athens. 

Directly after the battle, Pheidippides hastened 


127 


to carry the good tidings to Athens, and exclaim- 
ing, “ Victory is ours ! ” he fell dead. 

Two days after the battle the Spartans arrived. 
They had marched instantly after the full moon, 
but they found that they were too late to share in £ 
the glorious victory. So congratulating the Athe- 
nian soldiers, they marched home again. Indeed, 
all Greece praised Athens — and what wonder, for 
was it not a marvelous triumph when ten thou- 
sand Greeks had overthrown ten times their num- lO 
ber? Very truly this was the birthday of Athe- 
nian greatness. Never again was there achieved in 
the history of Greece a victory more memorable 
than that at Marathon, four hundred and ninety 
years B.c. 

MARATHOK 

<«Miltiades, thy victories 
Must every Persian own. 

And hallowed by thy prowess lies 
The field of Marathon.” 

— From the Greek* 


SELECTION FROM PHEIDIPPIDES 

wYes, he fought on the Marathon day ; 

So, when Persia was dust, all cried, < Lo, 
Acropolis ! 

Run, Pheidippides, one race more ! the meed is 
thy due I 


128 


Athens is saved, thank Pan ! go shout ! ’ he flung 
down his shield ! 

Ran like fire once more ; and the space ’twixt the 
fennel-field 

And Athens was stubble again, a field which a fire 
runs through. 

Till in he broke: ‘Rejoice, we conquer!’ Like 
wine through clay, 

6 Joy in his blood bursting his heart, he died — 
The bliss!” 

— Robert Browning. 


Thermopylae 

The defeat at Marathon fired Darius of Persia 
with a great resolve, — he would go himself and 
conquer Greece. But unfortunately for his coun- 
try he died before he could carry out his purpose. 
10 His fiery, impetuous son, Xerxes, succeeded to 
the throne, and at once decided to subject not 
only Greece, but the whole continent of Europe. 
Then what gigantic preparations were made ! 

From India to Thrace, from Egypt to the HSgean 
16 Sea, the whole world resounded with the din. 

A line of march was planned, storehouses were 
built along the route, and filled with provisions 
which Were the harvest of years. A magnificent 
bridge, a mile long, was constructed across the 
20 Hellespont. It rested upon boats chained together, 


129 


and had a double roadway that soldiers and ani- 
mals might cross on different sides ; also high 
parapets that the animals might not be frightened 
by seeing the water. 

When it was partly completed, it was injured 5 
by a storm. Hot-tempered Xerxes, not used to 
being opposed in such a way, ordered the sea to 
be lashed with whips, and fetters to be thrown 
into it to show that he was its master. 

As you may know, such preparation took years, lo 
and it was not until the spring of 480 b.c., ten 
years after the fight at Marathon, that the army 
met at Sardis to pass over the Hellespont and 
thence through Thrace and Macedonia down into 
Greece, while the ships and transports were to 16 
come by water. 1 wish that we knew exactly 
how many soldiers there were. They seem to 
^have numbered anywhere from one to five millions. 

It was the greatest army that the world has ever 
seen. But Xerxes was preparing to conquer 20 
nearly the whole world as it was then known. 

What a wonderful picture the soldiers made as 
they marched along ! 

When they reached the bridge' over the Helles- 
pont, sacred myrtle perfumed with incense was2{> 
strewn upon it, and libations were poured out to 
the sea. Early in the morning, just at sunrise, the 
passage commenced. First came the ten thousand 

K 


130 


Immortals, crowmed with garlands as for a festival. 
Then the chariot of the sun drawn by eight white 
horses, then the forty-six nations in every variety 
of dress. 

6 Among them one would have seen Persians with 
gilded breastplates and scarlet kilts, Arabs in 
woolen shirts, Scythians in loose spangled trou- 
sers, Ethiopians wrapped in leopard skins and gay 
with war-paint. Some were in bronze armor and 
10 others in cotton tunics. All kinds of weapons 
were carried, — bows and arrows, javelins and 
swords, lassos, and scimeters. 

It was an immense cavalcade, and passed so 
slowly that it took seven days to cross the Helles- 
ispont. 

And where was Xerxes all this time ? He sat 
on his white marble throne looking down at the 
marching thousands, and burst into tears when he 
thought in how few years all his soldiers would 
20 be dead. 

And now when the Persian army was marching 
toward Europe, what is going on in little Greece, 
which it would seem must soon be annihilated by 
such a tremendous foe. 

25 Aristides, “ the Just,” and Themistocles, « the 
Ambitious,” had been ruling in Athens. Aristides 
and many of the Athenians felt that, after Mara- 
thon, the Persians never would come again. The- 


131 


mistocles and his friends thought differently, and 
determined that Athens should have a strong navy 
at once. And so as has happened in many other 
cities, even in our own day, there were two parties 
and many contentions. 

Just at this time there was a punishment in 
Athens called ostracism,” because the name of 
the person to be banished always was written on 
an “ostrakon” or shell. These shells were thrown 
into an urn, and when there were six thousand 
votes against one man, he was banished for ten 
years. 

Themistocles influenced the people until finally 
Aristides was ostracized. Poor Aristides ! the 
story is told of him that while the contest was 
going on he met a countryman in the street with 
a shell in his hand. The man did not recognize 
Aristides, and innocently asked him to write Aris- 
tides ” on the shell that he might vote against him. 
Aristides wrote the name, and then said, Pray, 
what harm has he done that you wish to banish 
him?” “ None at all,” replied the man, “ only I am 
fired of hearing him called ‘ the Just.’” 

Themistocles was a very different man from 
Aristides. When he was a boy, his tutor once said 
to him, “ Boy, thou wilt be either a mighty blessing 
or a mighty curse to thy country.” I think that 
we shall find that he proved to be both. 


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,20 

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132 


Themistocles, having banished Aristides, equippeu 
a large fleet so as to be ready for any attack. 
When the news came that the Persians were ap- 
proaching, a congress of Greek states was sum- 
6moned hastily to decide how or where to meet the 
great army. A common danger forced the states to 
act together. The outlook was full of gloom, even 
the response of the oracles was discouraging. 

It was decided that Sparta should take the lead, 
10 and that the force of Xerxes was to be met and 
stopped at Thermopylae. 

Thermopylae was a narrow pass in Thessaly, 
in some places not wider than twenty feet ; on one 
side were rugged mountains, and on the other the 
16 sea. 

In one part of the pass there was a marsh filled 
with hot springs, making it very difficult for any 
army to cross. It was named Thermopylae from 
these springs, for the meaning of the word is “ hot 
20 gates.” 

Leonidas, king of Sparta, with three hundred of 
his own troops, and a few thousand from other 
cities, went to Thermopylae, and over a narrow 
part of the pass built a stone wall behind which 
ib they intrenched themselves. Only a few could 
fight at once — what use for the immense army 
of Xerxes I As Xerxes approached, he heard that 
the soldiers, so few in number, were awaiting, but 


133 


probably he thought that they would clear the 
way for his mighty march down into Greece. 

On reaching Thermopylae, a spy was sent to see 
what the Spartans were doing. He found them 
busied with combing their long hair. When t 
Xerxes asked the meaning of this, the man replied, 

« They mean. Sire, to dispute the pass, for it is the 
custom of Spartans to adorn themselves before 
battle.” Xerxes then sent a polite message desir- 
ing the Spartans to give up their arms. ThelO 
laconic reply was, “Come and take them.” 

Xerxes had his lofty throne placed where he 
could watch the fight. Column after column of 
his men were flung into the pass, only to be 
beaten back, and at last the Persians became soi 6 
frightened that they had to be driven with lashes 
on to the attack. 

The Greeks might never have yielded, had not a 
traitor shown the Persians a little mountain path 
through the woods so that they could come around 20 
on the other side of the army of Leonidas. They 
started at nightfall, and in the morning the brave 
Leonidas found his band surrounded. 

Most of the allies were sent home, but seven 
hundred Thespians and three hundred Spartans 26 
remained from' choice to die with him. The 
oracle had declared that either Sparta or her king 
must perish, and Leonidas would give himself 
willingly for his count^:^- 


134 


A frugal breakfast was eaten, Leonidas telling 
his men that on that very night they all should 
sup with Pluto. 

Then the heroic band rushed upon the Persians 
6 beyond the wall. They fought all day, and as they 
felt the bristling ranks of the enemy closing about 
them, they placed their backs against the rock, and 
fought until they were slain, — every one ; and 
never was field covered with braver dead. 

10 The advancing Persians had trod one upon 
another, and many rolled into the sea and were 
drowned. Xerxes had the body of Leonidas placed 
upon a cross, and asked anxiously whether all the 
Greeks were like these, and how many more 
15 Spartans there were in the world. 

Upon a mound at Thermopylae a marble lion 
was erected to I^eonidas ; and a pillar, dedicated 
to the three hundred Spartans, bore the following 
inscription: — 

20 « Go, stranger, and to Lacedemon tell 

That here, obeying her behests, we fell.’^ 

Surely the calm heroism of Leonidas and his 
brave three hundred as they fought and died at 
Thermopylae, 480 b.c., must ever claim the sincere 
26 admiration of all lovers of freedom. 


135 


THERMOPYL^ 

** Who at ThermopylaB stood side by side, 

And fought together and together died, 

Under earth-burrows now are laid in rest, 

Their chance thrice-glorious, and their fate thrice- 
blessed ; 

No tears for them, but memory’s loving gaze ; 
For them no pity, but proud hymns of praise. 

❖ ^ ^ Hs ❖ 

Leonidas, the Spartan king ; a name 
Of boundless honor and eternal fame.” 

— Simonides. 

Salamis 

After Leonidas and his gallant army were cut 
to pieces, the Persians rnarched down into central 
Greece. Athens was filled with despair, and when 
the people consulted the oracle, they were told that 
the security of their city lay in its “wooden wall.” 

Themistocles thought that by “ wooden wall ” 
the oracle referred to the ships, so placing old men 
and women and children in safety, all the men 
who were able to bear arms went on board the 
new ships, which, you remember, had been made 
ready for a Persian attack. . 

And then the Persian army came, and finding 
Athens deserted, pillaged the houses and temples 
and set fire to the city. 

f 


5 

10 

15 

20 



XERXES WATCHINO THE DESTRUCTION OP HIS FLEET AT 8ALAMIS, 






137 


Themistocles now called a council to decide 
what the Greeks should do. While all were think- 
ing, a stranger knocked at the door and wished to 
speak to Themistocles. 

It was the banished Aristides ! In a little open 
boat he had slipped through the enemy’s fleet, and 
had come to tell his countrymen that already the 
Persian ships were surrounding them in the bay of 
Salamis. And he added, Let us be rivals still, 
Themistocles, but let our strife now be to see 
which of us may best serve our country.” 

Thanks to Themistocles the navy was ready, and 
thanks to Aristides he had returned to do his part. 

Ancient ships were low and flat-bottomed, and 
were propeled by oars, the oarsmen sitting in 
banks one above another. The number of banks 
always decided the kind of vessel ; for example, a 
boat of three banks was called a trireme.” 

Bows, arrows, javelins, and other weapons might 
be used ; but the best way to make an attack was 
to run the sharp iron prow of one vessel into an- 
other and sink it ; or again, by steering alongside, 
to board the enemy’s ship and then flght hand to 
hand. 

The Greeks had more skill in running and turn- 
ing than the Persians, and, besides, their smaller 
boats, like their smaller army at Marathon, might 
prove an advantage. In the battle of Salamis the 


5 

10 

15 

20 

25 


138 


Persian fleet was nearly three times as large as 
that of the Greeks. 

This time Xerxes had his throne erected on the 
sea-beach. The shores back of him were lined by 
6 the glittering ranks of his own army drawn up to 
watch the fight and to catch any fugitives who 
might try to escape from the Greek fleet. The 
Greeks did not wait for a Persian onset, but ad- 
vanced, singing their battle-song. And how they 
10 fought ! Ships dashed upon ships, their pointed 
beaks bearing down upon one another. The space 
was too crowded for the Persians to bring all their 
forces into action. They ran into one another, 
lost their oars, and sunk their own ships, while the 
15 Greeks about them were plying every weapon. 

The conflict lasted from morning till night. 
Two hundred Persian and forty Greek boats were 
sunk,, and the sea was strewn with dead. 

At night the Persians gave a hasty order to 
20 retreat, and in the morning the fleet had disap- 
peared from the bay of Salamis. The victory was 
a glorious one for the Greeks. 

Xerxes, with the remains of his shattered fleet, 
returned at once to Asia, and on the way home 
25 many thousands perished from cold and hunger 
and fatigue. He was not willing, however, to give 
all up, so he left his general, Mardonius, with three 
million men, to spend the winter in Thessaly, that 


189 


in the spring he might try again to subdue the 
Greeks. So when the time arrived, Mardonius sent 
to the Athenians, offering them a favorable alliance 
with Persia. And Athens returned the following 
message, “ Tell Mardonius that so long as the 
sun holds on his way in the heavens, the Athenians 
will come to no terms with Xerxes,” and they kept 
their word. 

SELECTED VERSES FROM THE ISLES OF GREECE 

“ The Isles of Greece ! the Isles of Greece ! 
Where burning Sappho loved and sung. 

Where grew the arts of war and peace, 

Where Delos rose, and Phoebus sprung. 

Eternal summer gilds them yet. 

But all, except their sun, is set. 

« The mountains look on Marathon, 

And Marathon looks on the sea ; 

And musing there an hour alone, 

I dreamed that Greece might still be free ; 
For, standing on the Persian’s grave, 

I could not deem myself a slave. 

« A king sate on the rocky brow 
Which looks o’er sea-born Salamis ; 

And ships, by thousands, lay below, 

And men in nations — all were his. 


5 

10 

15 

20 


140 


He counted them at break of day, 

And when the sun set, where were they ? 

“ And where are they ? and where art thou. 

My country ? on thy voiceless shore 
5 The heroic lay is tuneless now ; 

The heroic bosom beats no more. 

And must thy lyre, so long divine, 

Degenerate into hands like mine ? 

« Must we but weep o’er days more blest ? 

10 Must we but blush ? our fathers bled. 

Earth, render back from out thy breast 
A remnant of our Spartan dead. 

Of the three hundred, grant but three, 

To make a new Thermopylae.” 

— Lord Byron. 

Athens and Socrates 

15 We remember old Athens with its little dwell- 
ings built around the rocky Acropolis, where stood 
an old temple, holding an ugly little wooden statue 
of Minerva ; but it was very sacred, for it was 
supposed to have fallen from heaven. Every day 
20 the image was washed and dressed, and once a year 
it had a new garment called a peplus, which was 
embroidered by the maidens of Athens. When 
this was finished it was borne by a long and splen- 
did procession up the steep hill to the temple. 


141 


This was the Panathenaic procession, so called from 
the goddess Athena, or Minerva. 

In later years Athens became so rich and power- 
ful that Pericles determined to add to its beautiful 
buildings. So another temple, called the Parthenon, 
was erected to Minerva on the Acropolis, and in it 
was placed her finest statue wrought in ivory and 
gold. 

This loveliest of Greek temples was designed 
and carved within and without by Phidias, the 
greatest sculptor that ever lived. He and his 
pupils erected other buildings of finest architec- 
ture on the Acropolis and all over Athens. Streets 
were made broader, schools and museums erected, 
theaters were built, and sculptures of gods became 
so numerous that Athens was called the ‘‘ City of 
the Gods.” 

You will find in any large museum a design of 
the Parthenon and of some of the other temples 
and porticoes of Athens as well as of the gods and 
heroes. If you will go and see them, you may form 
a little idea of the beauty of the city in the “Age 
of Pericles.” 

At this time, too, so many great sculptors and 
painters and poets and philosophers lived in Athens 
that the “Age of Pericles” was also called the 
“ Golden Age ” in art and literature. When you 
are older and study about them all, you will 


5 

10 

15 

20 

25 



the interior of THx^ PARTHENON RESTORED 







143 


wonder that one city could produce so many 
famous men at one time. Whenever you recall 
the fifth century b.c., think of Athens, the “ City 
of the Gods,” the « Age of Pericles,” and the 
“ Golden Age.” Now, in imagination, let us visit 6 
this city in all its glory, and study the life of one 
of its famous men. We find him wandering about 
the streets, day after day, in rain or in shine. Let 
us approach him. He seems to be a very homely 
man, with a large bald head, an ugly face, with flat lo 
nose and thick lips. He is poorly dressed and 
without sandals, and he has an awkward, sham- 
bling walk. What an odd figure he appears to us ! 
We know that he attracted more attention in 
Athens than even wise Minerva in her dress of 15 
ivory and gold. In the morning he was found in 
the schools or gymnasia, where young men were 
gathered; at noon, in the market-place; and later 
in the day, wherever most men were gathered, he 
would be in their midst. He was always talking 20 
to them, either asking or answering questions. 

He loved as much to talk to the poor tanners 
and drovers as to the gay and rich young men. 
Homely as he was, he had a beautiful soul ; and if 
one has a beautiful soul, what matters it if the 26 
body is plain. His melodious voice would attract 
the people on the street as they were passing, and 
they would stop and listen, and then draw nearer, 


144 


perhaps to answer questions ; and the longer they 
listened, the harder it was to leave him. 

After he became known, he was followed always 
by admiring throngs. But who was this man ? and 
6 what was he talking about ? His name was 
Socrates, and he was born about 470 b.c. Socrates 
was the son of a stone-cutter, and a poor and homely 
boy ; but he loved to study, and a rich man, seeing 
that he was an earnest boy, took him to his home 
10 as a teacher of his children. 

Later, Socrates became a soldier in the Pelo- 
ponnesian War; but, while he was very brave, 
he hated to fight. Then he went into politics and 
voted once or twice ; but politics made quarrels, 
15 and Socrates loved peace. His real trade was stone- 
cutting, and while he may have carved two or three 
figures, he always neglected his work. This was 
wrong, of course, for he should have supported 
his wife and children. Xantippe, his wife, had a 
20 violent temper. She did not care at all about 
philosophy, but thought that her husband should 
study less and earn more money. Sometimes he 
would bring people home to dinner, and there 
would be nothing to eat. One day his wife was 
26 very angry with him, and after scolding him well, 
she threw a pail of water over him. Socrates took 
this treatment very quietly, only saying, “ I thought 
that after so much thunder there would be some 


145 


rain.” Socrates always comforted himself, feeling 
that if he could bear his wife’s attacks patiently, 
nothing else could ever trouble him. Xantippe is 
noted in history as a constant scold ; but it seems 
as if she must have had something to scold about, 5 , 
so let us not judge her too harshly. 

But we must leave poor Xantippe and talk about 
Socrates. He did not like war or politics or stone- 
cutting; but the one thing that he did enjoy was 
teaching, and, like Confucius in Asia, he became lo 
the greatest teacher in Europe. We have said al- 
ready how he gathered around him groups of ques- 
tioning youths ; he seemed to feel that all the 
young men of Athens were his pupils, and he never 
would take any pay for his instruction. , i6 

He loved a simple life. Once a prince invited 
him to go and live in great luxury at his court. 
Socrates declined the invitation, saying, “ At 
Athens, meat is twopence the measure, and water 
may be had for nothing.” 20 

Socrates was a philosopher, and that means “a 
lover of wisdom.” He was a very famous one, 
because he was seeking constantly to find the very 
best kind of wisdom. It was not about Minerva, 
for Socrates thought that all the stories of Greek 25 
mythology were only silly fancies. Is it not strange 
that in the “City of the Gods” he ever dared to 
think and preach about any but Greek gods ? 


146 


Socrates taught that there was one God, about 
whom he knew just one tiung, and that was that 
He had placed within him an impulse which he 
called his “demon.” This always showed him what 
6 was right to do, and when he obeyed it he was 
happy, and when he did not he was miserable. 
He believed that if he obeyed this demon, God 
would take him when he died to be with Him for- 
ever. How much lovelier to think of death in this 
10 way rather than as going to be with Pluto in 
Hades ! That, you remember, was where Leonidas 
and all the other Greeks expected to go. Socrates’s 
demon was what we call our conscience, and when 
we do as it tells us how glad we are, and how 
i5cro3s and wretched when we disobey its warning. 
So Socrates walked with his disciples, or lingered 
with them in the porticoes, teaching them about 
God and the way to be happy. But, because he 
was a favorite, some very foolish and fashionable 
20 teachers in Athens, called Sophists, abused him, and 
comic poets wrote satires about him. Finally, one 
morning, on a portico where notices were placed, 
appeared the following : “ Socrates is guilty of 

crime : first, for not worshiping the gods whom 
25 the city worships, but preaching other new gods ; 
and secondly, for corrupting the youth of Athens. 
The penalty is death.” Then Socrates was tried. 
He assured his judges that he was innocent, saying 





THE THEATER OF DIONYSUS RESTORED 












148 


that he never led any one from virtue to vice, and 
then he added, Because I am thought to have 
some power of teaching youths, 0 my judge, is it 
a reason why I should suffer death ? ” 

6 Then his disciples made a vessel ready to carry 
him away from Athens, and they wished to bribe 
his jailers that he might escape. But he would 
not let his friends speak for him ; they prayed 
him to go, but he would not consent. For thirty 
10 days he was kept in prison. There he talked 
freely with his disciples about his belief in God. 
When a cup of poisoned hemlock was brought him, 
he drank it quietly, and then lay down and died. 
He was seventy years old, and the time was about 
16 400 B.c. Plato, his best-loved pupil, said, “ He was 
in death the noblest, and in life the wisest and 
best.” 

It is said that on the night before Plato entered his 
school, Socrates dreamed that a cygnet came to him, 
20 and after nestling for a time in his bosom it flew 
toward heaven, singing sweetly as it rose. He 
always thought that the dream foretold Plato’s 
coming to him to j learn of the heavenly wisdom. 

For eight years Plato gave up everything else to 
26 study with Socrates. After the master’s death, he 
established in the Academus, one of the beautiful 
public gardens of Athens, the first school ever called 
an academy. Plato was very fond of mathematics. 


149 


and over the door of the entrance was written, “ Let 
no one enter here who is a stranger to geometry.” 

Pupils came from all over the world to hear 
Plato’s discourses. He taught the lessons which 
he had learned from Socrates. His writings, which 6 
are in very pure Greek prose, are said to be so like 
the Bible that, he is sometimes called the “Attic 
Moses.” 

Let us try to remember three of Plato’s say- 
ings : — 10 

1. Let no one speak evil of another. 

2 . Self-conquest is the greatest of wisdom. 

3. We ought to become like God as far as this 

is possible, and to become like Him is to become 
holy and just and wise. 16 

Alcibiades 

“ Rich, beautiful, ambitious,” so says one writer 
of Alcibiades. What a different man he must have 
been from his teacher Socrates, to whom not one of 
these epithets fitly apply ! 

Alcibiades thought that he was descended from 20 
Jupiter himself, and he was so proud of having 
such an ancestor that when he went to war he 
always carried a shield on which Jupiter was shown 
hurling a thunderbolt. 

He was left an orphan when a very little boy, 26 
and was taken to the house of his uncle, Pericles, 


150 


who educated him highly. Here he was surrounded 
by the best society in Athens, and soon became 
really a spoiled child. 

Alcibiades had a very strong will, and it is said 
6 that one day -when playing in the streets he saw a 
wagon coming which would stop his game ; so he 
lay down directly in front of it and made it go 
another way. 

He always liked to attract attention. The first 
10 day on which he went to a public assembly he 
carried a tame quail under his cloak, and just as 
the business was commencing, he let it go, and 
nothing could be done until it was caught. 

He won many laurels at the Olympic games ; 
15 and once, instead of sending one chariot, as other 
contestants had done, he sent seven, and bore off 
the first three prizes. 

Alcibiades was graceful, handsome, and very 
wealthy. He was constantly making feasts and 
20 giving presents, so that wherever he went, he was 
surrounded by friends and flatterers. 

One day as he was walking in the streets he 
heard the voice of Socrates. He was so moved by 
what he heard that tears came to his eyes and 
25 he stopped his ears and fled away, lest he should sit 
down forever by the side of the great teacher. Day 
after day he came back and learned of the heavenly 
wisdom. He finally became the constant pupil of 


151 


Socrates, who loved him and was happy in getting 
an influence over such a rich and gay young 
man. 

But Alcibiades never liked the same thing very 
long. He had so many gayer influences in his life 5 
that he Anally fell away from his great teacher 
and forgot his wise lessons. 

While Alcibiades was growing up, the Pelopon- 
nesian War had broken out in Greece, and in order 
to understand about this, we must go back aio 
little. 

You remember that after the Graeco-Persian War, 
Athens had grown very rich and haughty, and natu- 
rally Sparta, that had remained only a little village- 
like city, was extremely jealous. 15 

Then each one tried to get the smaller states to 
form an alliance with it. As a result, the Pelo- 
ponnesian War began between Athens and Sparta, 
which lasted twenty-seven years. 

For a long time the victories on each side were 20 
about equal. Then a terrible plague broke out in 
Athens, and Pericles died. His nephew, Alcibiades, 
became a statesman and a general. 

He suggested that Athens should fit out a large 
fleet and take Sicily. Then it would be easy to 25 
conquer Italy, Carthage, and Sparta ; and then 
Greece might become a kingdom, with Athens 
as its capital. 


152 


Sicily — Italy — ^Carthage — let us find them 
all on the map before the expedition starts out. 

It was both reckless and unsafe to follow the 
plan of Alcibiades. The general, Nicias, and the 
6 old men objected, but he would not be opposed. 
He wished to show the people what great things 
he could accomplish as a general. He influenced 
the younger men until finally it was planned to 
send as large a fleet as Alcibiades thought best. 
10 Early one morning, just before the ships were 
ready to sail, it was found that all the Hermse, 
or busts of Mercury, which had been used for 
milestones on the streets, were mutilated very 
badly. And do you know that it was found 
15 that Alcibiades and his young companions in a 
drunken revel the night before had broken them 
all ? They had done not only mischief, but sacri- 
lege, for they had injured the gods. 

The Athenians were unwilling to pass sentence 
20 upon Alcibiades because he was at the head of the 
army. So he went in command as a general on 
one of the expeditions. As the fleet sailed away 
to Sicily, trumpets were sounded, libations in 
gold goblets were poured out to the sea, and 
26 pennons and banners were waving and fluttering 
from every galley. 

When Alcibiades had gone, the Athenians grew 
more and more indignant as they thought of what 


153 


he had done. After he had reached Sicily they 
sent a trireme to ask him to return. Alcibiades 
left the army in great indignation and started for 
Athens ; but while the trireme was stopping at 
a port for provisions, lie escaped in his little 6 
boat and went to Sparta. 

Allying himself with the Spartans, he used all 
his influence against Athens. In Sparta he lived 
like a Spartan, eating at the public table and 
even pretending to like the famous black broth, lo 

We cannot attempt to follow Alcibiades farther 
in his various^ adventures ; first with Sparta, again 
with Athens, and again at the court of Persia, 
where he abandoned himself to Asiatic luxury, 
and claimed to enjoy it as much as Spartan 15 
simplicity. 

Brave, proud Athens never should have listened 
to the advice of Alcibiades and dared to attack 
Sicily, for the result was that it lost everything in 
the Peloponnesian War. Sparta conquered it and 20 
placed over it « Thirty Tyrants.” • 

What became of fickle Alcibiades after he 
had done so much harm ? After the Pelopon- 
nesian War he had taken refuge in Asia Minor, 
and the Persian satrap of Phrygia had received 25 
him kindly there. But Lysander, the brave Spar- 
tan general, was afraid of him ; for naturally 
he could never tell with whom Alcibiades might 


154 


next ally himself. Lysander, therefore, felt that 
it would be safer to have him killed. 

He sent a message with gold to the satrap, 
telling him to murder Alcibiades. 

5 One night, when Alcibiades was sleeping, his 
house was set on fire. As he forced his way 
through the flames he was overwhelmed with a 
shower of stones and darts. He sank under many 
wounds, ana died. 

10 Then his body was taken and dressed in fine 
robes, and such ceremonies were performed over it 
as would secure his soul’s entrance into the realm 
of Plato. It would be interesting in closing to 
compare Socrates and Alcibiades, and to decide 
15 why these two men lived such widely different 
lives, and what effect each had upon the history 
of his country. 

Demosthenes 

If all the boys in our schools, now awkward and 
stammering, would study the life of Demosthenes, 
20 the most famous Greek orator, and then do with a 
will some of the things which he practiced, what a 
number of orators we might have in America ! And 
then if, when speaking in public, they would never 
fail to utter the thoughts that make for freedom 
26 and the right, as did Demosthenes, how our gov- 
ernment would be strengthened ! 


155 


We now study together the life of Demosthenes; 
perhaps we may learn from it a lesson of patient 
and persevering effort. 

Demosthenes was born in Athens about 380 b.o. 
He was a sickly, awkward, stammering boy. 6 
When he was only seven years old, his parents 
died. They left him a large fortune, and while 
his guardians gave him a good education, they 
stole from him nearly all his money. 

Demosthenes determined to get it back if heio 
could. He pleaded his cause with such skill 
that a small part of his fortune was restored to 
him. He was proud that he had succeeded so 
well, and, as he loved oratory, he determined to 
make a life study of it. His first address in pub- is 
lie was a complete failure ; his voice was well 
enough, but he was so weak and awkward that 
he had to sit down amid laughter and hissing. He 
was not discouraged, however. A good friend told 
him that he needed only confidence and strength of 20 
body. How hard he worked to gain them ! 

One of his greatest difficulties was shortness of 
breath. He practiced running uphill until that 
was cured. 

To correct his stammering, he spoke day after 25 
day with pebbles in his mouth. 

He had an awkward shrug of one shoulder, and 
this he remedied by speaking with a sword sus- 



DEMOSTHENES PRACTICJNa 



157 


pended oyer that shoulder and almost touching 
it. 

When he spoke, he made queer grimaces, to 
overcome which he practiced before a looking- 
glass. He was confused very easily if others r 
made a noise while he was talking, so he uttered 
his speeches on the seashore until his voice 
drowned the sound of the waves. 

Then, fearing that he might wish to spend his 
time in society, he shaved one side of his head, lO 
since by so doing he would be ashamed to have 
any one see him. 

He was very fond of studying the works of 
Thucydides, a famous historian of Greece who 
had written a history of the Peloponnesian War. lo 
It is said that he studied for months in a cave 
until he could express himself in the concise and 
stately style of Thucydides. 

It goes without saying, that after he had suc- 
ceeded by liis own great effort, he placed himself, 20 
as one has said, “at the head of all the mighty 
masters of speech.” 

Just at this time, Greece sorely needed an orator 
to secure her interests. 

The quarrels of Athens and Sparta had led to 25 
the Peloponnesian War, and after this, Sparta 
had become stronger than Athens, and its in- 
fluence had been to rouse all the little Greek 


158 


states ; and then, in turn, Thebes and Corinth 
became powerful. 

The whole of Greece makes only a very small 
country, and when its people were divided among 
S themselves, it seemed most easy for another nation 
to subdue it. 

So thought Philip, the king of Macedon, a coun- 
try which you will find on the map just north of 
Greece. 

10 Philip incited state against state in Greece, just 
to continue their quarrels. He sent money to some 
of the states, and begged them to allow him to 
assist, for he thought, “ Let me but once get into 
Greece, I will soon conquer it all.” 

15 This, then, was the crisis at which Demosthenes 
appeared. He was the only man clear-headed 
enough to discover the plans of Philip. In most 
noble speeches he fought against him for his coun- 
try’s rights. 

20 He took as the text of his orations that at any 
cost the union and freedom of Greece must be pre- 
served. 

As his fiery eloquence was hurled chiefly against 
Philip, the addresses were called Philippics, — a 

25 word which means now any powerful defense 
against a wrong. 

Philip used to say that he really had no 
enemy but Demosthenes, and that he fearea 


159 


him more than all the fleets and armies of 
Athens. 

The great orator tried to convince the Greeks 
that it was a shame to sacrifice Hellas to Macedon. 
But somehow the Greeks had known so much war 6 
and dissension that they had grown spiritless. 
The warnings came too late, for Philip was 
conquering city after city. At length Athens 
and Thebes, roused by Demosthenes’s eloquence, 
met Philip at Chaeronea. They were defeated lo 
severely, the Macedonian phalanx sweeping every- 
thing before it. Demosthenes went to the battle, 
but he did not know how to fight except with 
strong words. 

Philip’s power was being felt all over Greece. 15 
There was another orator, called ^schines, who 
also was very eloquent. He, however, was not so 
true to his country as was Demosthenes, and 
sometimes it was thought that he even accepted 
money from Philip in return for aid given him. 20 
At one time it was proposed that Demosthenes 
should be awarded a golden crown, for lie had been 
such a loyal statesman and courageous orator. 

His friends wished to place the crown on his 
head ; but ^schines and his party opposed this so 26 
strongly that after a contest kept up for six years 
the matter was to be decided by a debate. In this 
his most splendid oration, called “ The Crown,” 


160 


Demosthenes made a powerful defense of all that 
he had done for Greek liberty. His clear and stir- 
ring words won the debate and the crown, ^s- 
chines was banished from Athens. He went to 
6 Rhodes and established there a school of oratory. 
We are told that one day, when his disciples were 
gathered about him, he read to them Demosthenes’s 
oration on “ The Crown,” and his pupils were so 
delighted that they burst into applause. “ Ah ! ” 
10 said jEschines, in the excitement completely forget- 
ting his jealousy, “you should have heard the 
wild beast himself ! ” 

Demosthenes had in Athens other enemies who, 
like iEschines, were favorable to Alexander the 
15 Great, and finally he w^as banished. 

When, however, the news of Alexander’s death 
reached Athens, the people rejoiced and wished to 
make a great outburst, but a wise man bade them 
wait a little, for he said, “ If he is dead to-day, he 
20 will still be dead to-morrow and the next day, so 
that we may take counsel at our leisure.” 

The news proved true, and Athens determined 
to overthrow the supremacy of Macedon. Demos- 
thenes had been banished by secret enemies, but 
25 Athens sent ships to bring him back. But, alas, 
they were defeated by the Persians, and Antipater 
put a Macedonian guard in Athens, and insisted 
that Demosthenes with others should be given up. 


161 


Demosthenes fled to an island off the coast of 
southern Greece, but he was followed, and when 
found, he asked that before being taken he might 
write a letter to his friends. As he was writing, 
he bit off the top of the reed which he was using, 6 
and in which he had concealed poison, and so 
killed himself. 

The Athenians erected to his memory a brazen 
statue on which was inscribed : — 

Had you for Greece been strong as wise you were, 10 
The Macedonians had not conquered her.’^ 


Alexander the Great 

Of all the lives about which we are to read, that 
of Alexander the Great of Macedon is perhaps the 
most full of a bright and vivid personality. 

He was a man who seemed usually to say andi5 
to do the right thing; once in a while, however, 
his ambition or quick temper did get the better of 
him. 

Boys and girls like Alexander because he was so 
young himself and always on the move. 20 

Indeed he had to be, for in his short life of thirty- 
two years, he completely changed the map and 
history of the world. If “the Persians set the 
world a-mixing,” surely Alexander the Great Tcej^t 
it “ a-mixing.’’ 


26 


162 


The excitement began with the very opening of 
his life ; for on the day of his birth his father, 
Philip, had won a battle, and also had taken a 
prize in the Olympic games. When the news 
6 was brought to him that he had a little son, he 
was so overjoyed that he at once sacrificed to 
the gods, fearing that they might be jealous 
because he was so happy. The same night, too, 
the temple of Diana at Ephesus was burned by a 
10 madman who wished to do something to make 
himself forever remembered. He certainly suc- 
ceeded. 

The crafty warrior, Philip, was the father of 
Alexander, ^ while his mother was Olympia, a 
15 fierce and high-spirited, but very attractive, prin- 
cess. Philip first saw her performing a mystic 
rite by dancing fearlessly among some great 
twining serpents, and her wild beauty charmed 
him. 

20 When Alexander was seven years old, he was 
placed like all little Greek boys under the care of 
a pedagogue who taught him manners and who 
always went to school with him, carrying his rolled 
books and his tablets. The little fellow was taught 
25 to hate ease and luxury and to endure hardship. 
He remembered the lessons, too, for long after when 
passing through Caria in Asia Minor, its queen,. Ada, 
was so delighted with him that she adopted him as 


163 


her son and wished to present him with her best 
cooks to take with him on his march. He thanked 
the queen, saying, “ I was given as a child better 
cooks than yours, and I prefer to keep them. The 
one for breakfast was called, ‘ All-night tramp,’ 6 
and the one for dinner, ‘ Light-weight breakfast.’ ” 

When Alexander was fourteen, his father selected 
for his teacher Aristotle, one of the great philoso- 
phers of Greece. The school was in the city of 
Milza, and there Alexander went with the young lo 
friends who were to study with him. They gath- 
ered day after day in a delightful grove, and 
Aristotle sat before them in a great stone chair. 
Alexander loved to study, and Aristotle was proud 
of his success. The young pupil was so fond of 15 
Homer’s “ Iliad ” that he learned it ail and slept 
with it under his pillow. He made a special hero 
of Achilles, and decided that Achilles must have 
been his ancestor. 

He strongly wished to do some great thing him- 20 
self, and one day upon hearing of one of his father’s 
victories, he said to his friends, “Father will get 
everything in advance, boys ; he won’t leave any 
great task for me to share with you.” 

Philip had a very fine horse called Bucephalus ; 25 
it was so wild that nobody could tame it, so Philip 
was going to send it away. 

Alexander asked permission to mount it. He 

♦ 


164 


went up to Bucephalus, and noticing that its antics 
were caused by seeing its own shadow, he turned 
the horse from the sun, and then stroking and ca- 
ressing it, he threw olf his outer garment and 
5 leaped upon its back. The horse pranced and 
jumped, but its rider held on, using neither whip 
nor spur nor angry voice ; soon the fierce Bucepha- 
lus was tamed. Philip, in his pride, embraced 
Alexander, and he felt sure that his boy would win 
10 other victories in the future. Ever afterwards 
Alexander rode Bucephalus, and when it died years 
later in India, a city in its honor was named 
Bucephalus. 

Philip of Macedon wished to invade Persia ; the 
15 Greeks were willing to go with him, for they had 
not forgotten how the Persians had attacked their 

X 

country. 

But just as he was getting ready, he was assassi- 
nated. Only a single thrust from one of his body- 
20 guard, and the youthful Alexander, twenty years 
of age, was the king of Macedon. 

As Alexander mounted the throne he said to 
the assembled people, « Kings have changed, but 
the king you will find remains the same.” 

25 At first Alexander put down some uprisings in 
Macedon and Greece ; indeed, he terrified all 
Greece into submission by destroying Thebes 
that had revolted against him. We have said 
If 



AIiEXAJ^DRI? AMD BUCCPHAXXUA 


% 







166 


all Greece — all but one man, and that was 
Diogenes. 

His followers were called Cynics, from «kyon,” 
Greek word meaning a dog, because they really 
5 lived just like dogs. Diogenes, for example, lived in 
a great earthen tub. He was always going around 
with his lantern, seeking for an honest man. 

Alexander went to see Diogenes, and he took no 
notice of him until Alexander said, I am Alexander 
10 the king.” “I am Diogenes the cynic,” was the 
reply. Then Alexander asked what he could do 
. for him, and Diogenes said, “ Only get out of my 
sunshine.” Alexander walked away, saying, « If I 
were not Alexander, I would like to be Diogenes.” 
15 Like his father, Alexander had one great desire, 
and that was to conquer Persia, a country fifty 
times as large as his own. 

Ever since Marathon, Thermopylae, and Salamis, 
Persia had been growing weak ; but at this time it 
20 was governed by a good king, Darius III. Before 
starting out to conquer him, Alexander consulted 
the oracle at Delphi ; it was an unlucky day, and 
the priestess would not go to the shrine, where- 
upon Alexander grasped her arm, and she ex- 
25 claimed, « Ah, my son, thou art irresistible ! ” 

“ Enough ! ” shouted Alexander. « I ask no other 
reply.” 

There was a famous Gordian knot which could 


167 


be loosened only by the man who was able to 
conquer Asia. This was cut by Alexander, and so 
everything seemed to prophesy well for the start. 

Alexander set out from Macedon with about 
thirty-five thousand soldiers, as large a force as 5 
it was well to take into an enemy’s country. 
Crossing the Hellespont, he was the first man 
to leap upon the shores of Asia, and he went at 
once to old Troy to offer sacrifices on the tomb 
of his hero, Achilles. lo 

Darius, hearing that the army was coming, sent 
his troops to seize the mad boy, Alexander, to 
clothe him in mock purple, and to bring him to 
Susa, his Persian capital. 

The armies met at the river Granicus, where 15 
Alexander crossed right in the face of the 
enemy. 

Showers of arrows and javelins fell upon them 
as they struggled through the ford right on and up 
to the muddy, slippery shore. Slowly and steadily 20 
they pushed ahead, Alexander’s white-plumed hel- 
met always in the thick of the fight. Soon the 
Persians were fleeing, and they hardly stopped until 
they were out of Asia Minor. 

Darius now determined to go himself to meet 26 
Alexander. He marshaled a large army, and ac- 
companied by his court and family, and surrounded 
by great pomp, started westward. 


168 


Darius was nearly sixty years old, and his army 
numbered between five and six hundred thousand 
men, while Alexander, just twenty-three years old, 
had only a small force of thirty thousand men. 

6 Darius thought that Alexander would be fright- 
ened when he found that he, the great shah, sur- 
rounded by the Immortals, was coming against^ 
him. Alexander called together his soldiers ; he 
told them not to be afraid, for the Persians could 
10 not compare with the Macedonians. The Persians 
were afraid of war and loved luxury. 

Then he spoke to them of Marathon and Ther- 
mopylae, and the brave soldiers took courage, and 
amid tumultuous cheers exclaimed : “ Why do we 
15 wait ? Lead us on.” 

It was in the year 333 b.c. when the armies met 
at Issus. Alexander saw Darius seated in his 
chariot, surrounded by the Immortals, and he made 
a mad onset right into the center of the Persian 
20 host. As at Marathon, the Persians were crowded 
by their great numbers. It was feared that Darius 
would be killed, and he was taken down from his 
chariot ; mounting a horse, he galloped away just 
as fast as he could. 

25 The Persian ranks were broken, one hundred 
thousand fell, and fugitives escaped in every 
direction. 

After the battle, Alexander thought that he 


169 


would like to take a Persian bath, and seeking 
the shah’s tent, he found that it was very large 
and draped with beautiful hangings. There were 
vessels of gold and silver, and perfumes and instru- 
ments, and a feast prepared, and slaves all ready to 6 
wait upon their master. Alexander had never seen 
such luxuries before, and exclaimed, ‘‘ This is 
royalty, indeed ! ” 

He also found the wife and mother and little son 
of Darius weeping in the next tent, and then andio 
ever afterwards he treated them royally. Tyre, 
built on an island, next dared to resist him ; he 
made a mole to the city, over which he rolled his 
great war engines. After a terrible siege of seven 
months Tyre was destroyed and its inhabitants 15 
were sold into slavery. 

His army next marched into Egypt. Here he 
laid out a city and called it Alexandria. Then the 
victor marched into the desert, and there, in the 
great temple of Jupiter Ammon, was declared to be 20 
a god. 

He now started toward the eg^st for the real 
conquest of the Medo-Persian Empire. Darius sent 
him letters, oifering him his daughter in marriage 
and, as her dowry, a part of his kingdom. “ T would 25 
accept it if I were Alexander,” said Parmenio, 
one of his followers. “ So would I if I were Par- 
menio,” replied Alexander. 


170 


The forces met at Arbela, 330 b.c. Darius ad- 
vanced in the midst of his Immortals, his chariots 
armed with scythes. 

All night the armies lay facing each other. Alex- 
sander’s troops begged him to make the attack 
in the darkness, but he replied, “ I steal no 
victory.” 

In the morning, drawing up his forces into the 
shape of a wedge, he pressed boldly into the very 
10 center of the Immortals, and, as at Issus, Darius 
galloped away as fast as he could. 

Alexander marched in triumph into ancient Baby- 
lon. The streets were strewn with flowers, and gifts 
of lions and leopards were borne forth to greet him. 
15 We cannot imagine the quantities of gold and 
silver and jewels and rugs which were brought to 
him as offerings from the different cities. 

Hearing that Darius had been taken prisoner by 
his own satraps, Alexander followed on to rescue 
20 him. Darius had been stabbed and left by the 
roadside, and when Alexander came upon his dead 
body, he covered it with his own cloak. He ar- 
ranged a magniflcent funeral procession to escort 
the shah to his burial in the tombs of the Persian 
25 kings. 

And then Alexander and his army marched on 
yet farther to the east. He was so fascinated with 
all the new worlds, that he was unwilling to turn 


171 


back. At last, reaching India, he was met by 
Porus, a famous Indian prince, with troops and 
elephants and war-chariots. 

Alexander defeated Porus and made him his 
prisoner. When Porus was brought before Alex- 6 
ander, he was asked what he would like. “Only 
to be treated like a king,” was the reply. Alex- 
ander was so pleased with Porus that he gave 
him his liberty and yet greater power in India. 
Now the troops of Alexander refused to go farther lo 
and to waste their lives in greater peril. 

Alexander was disappointed, but determined to 
return to Babylon and make it the capital of his 
“ World Empire.” Before leaving India, he prayed 
the gods that no conqueror might ever go farther 15 
east than he had gone. 

After . a long time, he again reached Babylon, 
and then prepared to make it his capital. He had 
married Roxana, the “ Pearl of the East,” and he 
bade his soldiers take eastern wives. He gave 20 
high offices to the Persian natives, trained the 
youths in Macedonian warfare, dressed himself in 
Persian royal robes, and had himself crowned 
“King of kings.” 

His Macedonian troops did not like it that Alex- 25 
ander tried to be a god, for they loved the old, 
simple ways, and sometimes there were plots 
against his life. 


172 


Alexander now had yet other great designs. 
But he was seized with a fever in Babylon and 
grew worse very fast. His old soldiers would not 
be denied the pleasure of seeing him, and gaining 
6 entrance to his palace, they marched sorrowfully 
past their dying Alexander. It is said that he 
gave his ring to Perdiccas and his kingdom to the 
worthiest ; but could Perdiccas or any general hold 
in union Europe and Asia ? He died in Babylon 
loin the year 323 b.c., at the early age of thirty-two. 
Later his body was taken to Alexandria, in Egypt, 
and buried there in a splendid mausoleum. 

In twelve years he had changed the whole history 
of the world, and wherever he went, he always left 
15 something better than he found. He carried Greek 
art and language and literature with him every- 
where, and he never lost a great battle. Veiy 
many temples were dedicated to him, and he built 
splendid cities in all places, calling many of them 
20 Alexandria. One of these cities, with walls and 
houses and public buildings, was finished in just 
twenty days. 

Alexander had a great sculptor, Lysippus, who 
left several bronze portraits of him, and Apelles, the 
26 most celebrated painter of ancient times, lived at 
his court. It is said that Alexander’s favorite 
portrait of himself was the one in which Apelles 
represented him as holding a thunder-bolt. He 



THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER 







174 


loaded Apelles with honors and loved to talk 
with him. But once, when Apelles painted him 
as mounted on Bucephalus, Alexander complained 
that his beautiful horse was badly done. The 
6 artist was trying to prove that this was a mistake, 
when a horse stopped and neighed before the pic- 
^ , ture. Then Apelles turned to Alexander, and said, 
“Shall this animal be a better judge of painting 
than the king of Macedon ? ” 

10 Alexander smiled and gave his hand to Apelles, 
and ever afterward they were friends. And Alex- 
ander loved his friends as he loved a battle. 

After his death, the struggle among his generals 
was terrible for twenty-two years ; but finally, in 
J6the battle of Issus, 301 b.c., the great “World 
Empire,” the trophy of Alexander the Great, was 
divided. 

Rome 

In our course of reading, starting from China, we 
have traveled westward to Italy, which now is 
20 our halting-place. 

Italy is the smallest of the peninsulas of south- 
ern Europe. It is a country of plains and streams 
and mountains, and sunlit skies. Its beauty and 
fertility very early tempted many tribei? to settle 
26 in its valleys, around fortified hills. If you look 
at a map of Italy, you will see that it is shaped 


175 


like a boot, with one long range of mountains 
running through its whole length, while the Alps 
on the north form a grim wall. 

Our story opens in the valley of the Tiber, where 
the river winds among seven low hills on its way 5 
to the sea. Around the Palatine, one of these 
hills, there were clustered, in very early times, per- 
haps a thousand miserable thatched cottages. The 
farmers and traders living in them tilled the soil 
and bartered. On the approach of an enemy, they lo 
fled within the fortifications. They called their 
village Rome. Some say that the word came from 
Romulus, it's founder ; ' others that it means “ fa- 
mous,” and yet others “a border.” 

But whatever the origin of the word, when we 15 
think of Rome, we recall the little village of mud 
huts, the town which ruled over neighboring ones, 
the capital of Italy, and the proud “Mistress of the 
World.” 

The Romans worshiped many of the Greek 20 
gods. Every home was dedicated to Vesta, and at 
the hearth were placed the Lares and Penates, 
little household gods, which were sacred to the 
ancestors of the family and to the powers of na- 
ture. In their honor, a fire was kept constantly 25 
burning ; the head of the house offered sacrifices to 
them for the family. On feast days, these gods 
were decorated with wreaths, and, on the departure 


176 


or return of any member of the household, they 
were saluted in the same manner as the rest of the 
family. 

The city hearthstone was the round Temple of 
6 Vesta, which remains to-day one of the most beau- 
tiful of the monuments of ancient Rome. Here 
the sacred fire was always burning, for fire was 
the Roman emblem of friendship and hospitality, 
and trouble came to the city if the flames went 
10 out. Little maidens, called vestal virgins, from 
six to ten years old, were chosen from the best 
families to guard the fire. There were never more 
than six in charge at one time. If they let the 
sacred fire go out, they were scourged by the Ponti- 
15 fex Maximus. Great reverence was paid to them. 
They were always robed in white, and, in public 
processions, they were covered by veils. At pub- 
lic games they sat next to the emperor. 

We have spoken of the Pontifex Maximus. He 
20 was the high priest of Rome. The name “ Ponti- 
fex ” means “ a maker of a bridge ” ; because the 
first bridge over the Tiber was built, and conse- 
crated by a priest. To-day the Pope is Pontifex 
Maximus. 

26 Besides the household gods and vestal virgins, 
every city had its guardian spirit, every wood its 
faun, and every stream its nymph. 

Jupiter, king of the gods, « Best and Most High,” 


177 


had his temple on the Capitoline Hill, whence he 
looked down over the city which he guarded. 
There were many religious festivals. One was 
given to Mars, the god of war, in his month of 
March. Then his priests would sing and dance in 5 
the streets. Perhaps the most interesting of all 
was the Saturnalia, which lasted several days, even 
the slaves being allowed to join in the merriment. 

This festival was sacred to Saturn, because in the 
“ Golden Age ” in which he had lived he had lo 
taught the people how to sow their grain and to 
gather their rich harvests. 

All gates were sacred to Janus, the two-faced 
god. His temple was placed at the entrance to 
the city. Its gates were open in time of war and 16 
closed in time of peace. One face of his statue 
looked over the city, and the other beyond the 
gates. 

January, the month dedicated to Janus, stood 
at the beginning of the New Year, one face look - 20 
ing into the past, the other toward the future. 
On the first day of this month, the Romans greeted 
one another with gifts and good wishes. 

The Romans had no oracles, but, instead, impor- 
tant omens given by augurs and haruspices. The 25 
augurs wore a sacred dress and carried a curved 
staff. These were held in highest regard. Usually 
they sought to know th^ will of the gods concern- 


178 


ing the future by observing the flight of birds or 
by thunder and lightning. 

When starting on a journey, a Roman would 
watch for the birds. If he saw thetn flying on his 
6 right, he would have success ; but if on his left, 
something bad was expected to happen. 

The augurs kept chickens in coops, and from 
their manner of eating or fluttering, happiness or 
disappointment would be foretold. The haruspices 
10 were of less importance than the augurs. They 
prophesied the future by examining the entrails ot 
animals which had been sacrificed to the gods. 

In our next chapter we shall begin the history of 
Rome far back in its legendary days, and as we 
15 get interested in turn in the village, the town, the 
capital, and the “Mistress of the World,” we may 
know the meaning of the words of the historian 
Freeman. He says, “ The center of our studies, the 
goal of our thoughts, the point to which all paths 
20 lead, and the point from which all paths start 
again, is to be found in Rome and her abiding 
power.” 


JEnesiS 

The tales of early Rome are so full of improb- 
abilities that we know not which to believe. But 
25 as Rome is really in existence, there must be a bit 
of truth somewhere mixed up with all the fable. 


179 


The Latin poet, Virgil, took an old Greek tradi- 
tion of the founding of the city, and made it the 
theme of his poem, the “ ^neid.” In this he 
describes the coming to Italy of ^neas, a Trojan 
hero, after the fall of Troy, and he made the story 6 
so real that in Virgil’s day the Romans thought 
themselves the direct descendants of vSlneas. 

We remember how the Greeks loved their great 
poems, the “ Iliad ” and the “ Odyssey,” because 
they told of the deeds of Grecian heroes; and the lo 
Romans loved their epic, the “ ^neid,” in just the 
same way, because it related the adventures of 
their own hero, ^neas. 

^neas was the son of Venus and Anchises. On 
the fatal night when the wooden horse was carried 15 
into Troy, and the city captured and set on fire, 
^neas rushed to his house and seized his father, 
Anchises, who was too feeble to walk fast. He 
begged him to hold the household gods as he car- 
ried him out upon his shoulders. He led by the 20 
hand his little son Ascanius, while his wife Creusa 
followed closely behind. In the confusion of the 
escape from the burning city, Creusa was swept 
away, and ^neas never saw her again. For his 
prompt devotion to his family on that terrible 25 
night, he has ever since been called the “Pious 
.^Eneas.” 

His little party was joined by other Trojans, 



^NEAS ESCAPES FROM BURNING TROT 


181 


and together they went to the forests of Mount 
Ida. There they built for themselves boats, in 
which they later sailed away over the Great Sea to 
find new homes in a more favored land than Troy. 

When you read the ^neid ” in Latin, you will 6 
learn all about Eneas’s stirring adventures. On 
one occasion the party landed on the Island of 
Delos, and there asked the oracle w^here they would 
better go. 

The reply was as follows : Seek your ancient lo 
mother ; there the race , of ^neas shall dwell and 
reduce all other nations to their sway.” 

This answer seemed difficult to understand, un- 
til it was revealed in a dream to ^neas that Italy 
was the “ ancient mother ” of the Trojan race. is. 
Then he determined to sail to Italy and there 
make his home. 

Later, poor Anchises died ; and while ^neas was 
sorrowing for him, Juno, who hated the Trojans, 
stirred up a high sea. The ships, which were just 20 
rounding Sicily, were driven into a beautiful bay 
on the coast of Africa. The mariners disembarked, 
and, coming to a high hill'and looking down, they 
saw people building a city. They descended the 
hill, and, entering one of the temples, ^neas was 26 
surprised to see sculptured on its walls the story of 
the siege of Troy. He could recognize the different 
warriors, the likenesses were so perfect. 


182 


Just then the beautiful Queen Dido entered the 
temple. Formerly she had been queen of Tyre in 
Phoenicia, where her husband had been murdered. 
She had escaped with a few faithful followers, and 
5 here they were laying the foundations of the splen- 
did city of Carthage. 

Dido received ^neas and his friends with great 
hospitality. She told them that she was herself 
acquainted with distress and had learned to help 
10 the unfortunate. 

She became greatly fascinated with ^neas, and, 
filled with admiration of his exploits, she longed 
to* marry him. She offered him both herself and 
her kingdom, and several months passed very hap- 
l5pily, ^neas quite forgetting all that the oracle had 
bidden him to do. At last Jupiter dispatched 
Mercury to him with a message, reminding him 
that he was destined to found a kingdom, and 
commanding him to resume his journey at once. 
20 Dido earnestly begged him to remain, and, when 
he refused and had departed, she was in deep 
despair. She ordered a funeral pyre to be erected. 
When all was ready, she mounted it and stabbed 
herself with the sword of ^neas, and then she 
26 was consumed. As ^neas sailed away, he saw 
the flames rising over Carthage. 

After a voyage of several years and the loss of 
thirteen ships, ^neas Anally reached the mouth 


183 


of the Tiber. Latinus, the king who ruled the 
country, at first treated him very kindly, and enter- 
tained him with stories of the peace and plenty 
that reigned in the « Golden Age ” of Saturn. 

Latinus had no son to succeed him ; but he had 
a charming daughter, Lavinia, who had been sought 
in marriage by many suitors. Latinus offered her 
to ^neas, but a fierce war with Turnus, a rejected 
lover, followed ; and with the death of the latter 
the «^neid” closes. We know, however, that 
.^neas, favored by Mercury and led by his mother, 
Venus, triumphed at last; and the legend properly 
ends with his marrying Lavinia, and ruling over 
the kingdom of Latinus. 

Later, his descendants founded Alba Longa, the 
“Long White City,” and this, after many years, 
was the birthplace of Romulus and Remus. 

Romulus and the Kingly Period 

Romulus, the first king of Rome, is said to have 
founded the city 753 b.c. Now in this eighth cen- 
tury before Christ we are yet only in story land. 
This is because it was five hundred years after the 
legendary founding that the first real history of 
the city was written. All this time the fathers 
had been telling to their children varying stories 
of early confiict and settlement. Moreover, every 


5 

10 

15 

20 

25 


184 


( 

one who studies Roman history begins with these 
traditions. As we read them, each of us may 
decide what part of each is fact and what part 
is fiction, for there is a fragment of genuine history 
6 running through every one. 

The story always describes the doings of seven 
kings ; first, Romulus, the founder ; second, Numa 
Pompilius, the lawgiver ; third, Tullus Hostilius of 
the famous combat ; fourth, Ancus Martius, the 
10 conqueror. The last three, Tarquinius Priscus, 
Servius Tullius, and Tarquinius Superbus, were all 
very famous builders. Each of these kings gov- 
erned with a senate chosen from the fathers, under 
which was an assembly of the people. 

15 Romulus and Remus were descended directly 
from ^neas, and their father was Mars, the god 
of war. Their grandfather Numitor was king of 
Alba Longa. When they were only babies, a 
usurper seized Numitor’s crown, and, wishing to 
20 kill the children, put them into a little trough 
which was thrown into the Tiber. The trough 
was cast ashore at the foot of Mount Palatine. 
Here a kind wolf found and nourished the chil- 
dren, and a woodpecker — a bird sacred to Mars — 
26 fed them with berries. 

Faustulus, a passing shepherd, saw them, and, 
although he was very poor, he took the babies 
home and brought them up as brave shepherd 


185 


boys, strong in fighting robbers and wild beasts. 
When they became of age, their foster father 
revealed to them that they were of royal birth. 
Then Romulus and Remus killed the usurper, and 
placed their grandfather Numitor again on his 6 
throne. 

As both wished to build a city, they watched 
the flight of birds so that they might decide which 
should do it. While they were looking, Romulus 
saw twelve vultures and Remus only six. Fromio 
this Romulus knew not only that he was to build 
the city, but that it would be famous for twelve 
centuries. He marked his boundary with a plow 
and built about it a low mud wall. Remus, see- 
ing this, leaped over it, exclaiming in scorn, “ This 15 
is the way your enemies will do ! ” 

Romulus killed Remus on the spot, saying, « So 
perish all who leap over my walls ! ” 

To secure plenty of inhabitants for the new city, 
Romulus made it an asylum for outlaws. But how 20 
should they get wives ? for no one would be will- 
ing to marry robbers. Romulus tried a cunning 
trick which proved successful. 

A great feast was made in honor of Neptune, 
and to this the Sabine neighbors were invited. In 26 
the midst of the banquet, at a given signal, every 
Roman youth seized a Sabine maiden and carried 
her off. The indignant fathers naturally went 


186 


home to prepare for war. While they were gone, 
the marriage ceremonies took place. 

Very soon after, the angry parents returned to 
rescue their daughters. As they entered the city, 
sTarpeia, the daughter of the commander, offered to 
betray the fortress to them if they would give her 
the bracelets which they wore. They gave them, 
but as they rushed in through the gates she was 
crushed by their heavy shields. Henceforth, the 
10 citadel was called the Tarpeian Rock, and over it 
traitors were hurled. 

Then the Romans and Sabines drew up in battle 
array, and, just as the fight was beginning, loud 
cries were heard. The Sabine maidens, who had 
16 grown very fond of their Roman husbands, rushed 
between the combatants and implored peace. From 
this time the Romans and Sabines, or Quirites as 
they were called, lived in harmony and in turn gov- 
erned the city. 

20 Romulus divided the people into Patricians and 
Plebeians. He reigned for thirty-seven years, 
doing everything according to the will of the 
gods. 

One day, while reviewing his army, a terrible 
26 thunderstorm arose, and the frightened people fled 
in every direction to their homes. Romulus never 
was seen again. 

Of the various stories of his disappearance, the 


187 


best of all is that his father Mars carried him up to 
live among the gods. 

The people mourned for Romulus, but they were 
comforted when in glorified form he appeared to a 
Roman, and told him that the Romans were to 5 
become the lords of the world, and that he would 
be always the guardian of the city. 

The senate next elected ^uma as their king. 
He came with reluctance from his quiet home 
among the groves. 10 

He was taken first to the top of the Tarpeian 
Rock, where the chief augur, laying his hands upon 
his head, watched with him until some birds fiew 
by on the right hand. 

Then Numa was invested with royal robes and 15 
hailed as king. He made the country so peaceful 
that the gates of the temple of Janus were con- 
stantly closed. 

He was beloved by Jupiter, who promised him 
that he would ask no more human sacrifices from 20 
the Romans. 

There was a sacred grove near Rome, and here 
the nymph Egeria gave him wise counsel. One day 
Numa made a feast, at which some Romans ques- 
tioned whether Egeria was a real nymph. To 26 
prove her power, she immediately changed his 
earthenware dishes with homely fare into golden 
ones filled with dainty food. 


188 


Numa was really as much the religious founder 
of the city as Romulus was the military one. 
After reigning for thirty-eight years, he gradually 
faded away. Egeria wept until she became a 
6 fountain in her own valley. 

The reigns of the next kings are full of conflict. 
Tullus Hostilius fought with the people of Alba 
Longa, and at last it was determined to decide the 
war by a combat between three young Roman 
10 warriors called the Horatii, and three young Alban 
warriors called the Curiatii. The battle was a fierce 
one. Finally two of the Horatii were killed and 
all three of the Curiatii wounded. The Romans 
were in despair when they saw the third Horatius 
16 pretending to flee, and the three Curiatii feebly 
following him. 

Suddenly Horatius turned and killed them, every 
one. The Romans crowned him with a wreath, 
and, amid singing and dancing, and loaded with 
20 the spoils of the Curiatii, he was led into the 
city. 

His lovely sister hurried to meet him, but alas ! 
she was betrothed to one of the Curiatii. Would 
she be true to her Roman brother or to her Alban 
26 lover ? As Horatius advanced, she saw that he car* 
ried over his arm the robe, now all blood-stained, 
which she had embroidered for her lover. She 
saw it, and wept in her agony of grief. Then Hora- 


189 


fcius killed her, saying, « So perish any Roman 
woman who laments a foe ! The next kings 
were very famous builders, and even to-day we 
see in Rome the remains of some of their great 
works. 6 

Tarquinius Superbus was the seventh and last 
king of Rome. Among his beautiful buildings was 
the temple to Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill. Dur- 
ing his reign, the Cumaean Sibyl visited him. Sibyls 
were mysterious women who foretold future events, lo 
This one came to Tarquinius, offering to sell 
him nine volumes of prophecy for a fabulous price. 
He declined to purchase them, and she went away. 
After burning three volumes, she returned with the 
remaining six, offering them for the price named 15 
at first. Then Tarquinius laughed at her. She 
again left and burned three more. She appeared 
before the king with the last three which she 
offered him at the original cost. 

Tarquinius was a superstitious man, and now he 20 
was frightened and his curiosity excited. So he 
sent for the augurs to advise him. They told him 
to buy the volumes because they contained impor- 
tant revelations concerning the future of Rome. 
After purchasing, Tarquinius deposited them in 25 
vaults under the new Capitol, and in all times of 
danger they were consulted, that through them the 
people might learn the will of the gods. 


190 


In time the kings of Rome became very tyranni- 
cal. So in 500 B.c. it was decided to banish them 
and to establish a republic with two consuls at its 
head. These consuls wore all the emblems of 
6 royalty except the crown. They were accompanied 
by twelve lictors, each of whom bore a bundle 
containing an ax surrounded by twelve rods or 
fasces, which represented the power of the magis- 
trates to punish offenders. 


Coriolanus, Cincinnatus, Camillus 

10 After the Tar quins had been banished from 
Rome, and the consuls had taken the power, the 
Romans determined that they would never have 
another king. In the following centuries they 
tried many different forms of government. There 
16 were constant struggles between the Patricians 
and Plebeians. The Patricians, descended from 
the old Roman fathers, were very rich and proud ; 
while the poor Plebeians, descended from com 
quered tribes, had at first few rights, but were 
20 continually gaining power. 

Some of their most important wars took place 
in the fifth and fourth centuries before Christ. 
We remember that in Greece all the great events 
of the fifth century before Christ cluster about 
26 three “P’s”; the Persian War, Pericles, and the 


191 


Peloponnesian War. In Rome, in like manner, 
the great events of the fifth and the latter part 
of the fourth century before Christ are grouped 
about three men whose names begin with “ C ” : 
Coriolanus, Cincinnatus, and Camillus. The two t 
centuries were famous ones in both Greece and 
Rome; let us remember them by the «P’s’’ and 
the « C’s.” 

Our first « G ” is Caius Marcius, a brave patrician 
youth, who, for his bravery in the capture of the 1C 
city of Corioli, was given the name of Coriolanus. 

Coriolanus hated the Plebeians. They had 
gained too much power. Once, in time of famine, 
a quantity of corn was sent to be divided among 
the people, and Coriolanus begged that none 16 
should be given the Plebeians, unless they sur- 
rendered their rights. They were so indignant 
with him that he was obliged to flee. 

Before going, he took leave of his mother, 
wife, and children, then went directly to the Vol -20 
scians, who were enemies of the Romans. He 
led the Volscians against Rome. As the army 
approached, the priests and augurs went to meet 
him, begging him not to attack his own city ; 
but the entreaties were of no avail. Finally his 26 
mother and wife, clad in deep mourning and each 
leading one of his children, went out. As they 
drew near, he sprang to meet his mother. She 


192 


besought him if he must destroy Rome to begin 
by slaying her, saying, ^'Let me know whether I 
stand in thy company thy prisoner or thy mother ; 
whether I am speaking to an enemy or to my son.’^ 

6 The priests and augurs could not move Corio- 
lanus, but he was overcome by the entreaties of 
his mother, the agony of his wife, and the sight of 
his children. He exclaimed, « Oh, my mother, 
Rome thou hast saved, but thou hast lost thy son I ” 
10 Then he turned from the city, and the tradition is 
that the disappointed Volscians stirred a tumult 
and killed him. 

The character of Cincinnalus forms a striking 
contrast to that of Coriolanus. He lived on his • 
16 little four-acre farm on the banks of the Tiber, and 
there the senators loved to visit him and to listen 
to his wise counsel. 

In his day great danger threatened Rome. The 
army had been shut up by the -^Equians in a little 
20 valley, and there they must submit or starve to 
death. A few knights escaped and brought the 
news to the city. The senate met and at once 
decided that Cincinnatus must be dictator. A dic- 
tator was an officer chosen in times of great emer- 
26gency, and he was expected to act immediately. 

Messengers were sent to bring Cincinnatus to 
the city, and they found him plowing in the 
homely dress of a farmer. Without hesitation, he 


193 

asked his wife to bring his toga. This was a gar- 
ment which the Romans put on with the greatest 
care ; for it must hang gracefully and leave one 
arm free. As the Romans went bareheaded, some- 
times a fold was drawn over the head. We are 6) 
told that Cincinnatus put on his toga, washed his 
face and hands, and at once was saluted as dictator. 

He then went by boat to Rome, where he was met 
by lictors, who escorted him through the city. He 
ordered every person capable of bearing arms to 10 
meet him at sunset, bringing provisions for five 
days. 

At the head of his small army he traveled all 
night, and in the morning the ^quians were sur- 
prised ,to find themselves between two Romanis 
armies. Those who had been shut in the valley 
heard the familiar battle shout and knew that help 
had come. All fell upon the ^quians, and they 
were so defeated that they were forced to pass 
under the yoke. The Romans returned with rich 20 
spoils and proud of their victorious leader. Cin- 
cinnatus at once resigned the dictatorship and 
went back to work on his farm. 

Camillus, the third hero, distinguished himself 
first by taking the Etruscan city of Veii. It was 2S 
situated on a hill not far from Rome. After the 
capture of Veii, Camillus was allowed a triumph, 
and, painting his face with vermilion, he droyo 


194 


through the city in a four-horse chariot. He 
seemed to wish to be honored as a god rather 
than as a man. The people did not like this, and 
also thought that he had kept more than his share 
. 6 of the spoils. He was banished from Rome, and 
on leaving it he called upon the gods to bring it 
to repentance for the way in which he had been 
treated. And we shall see how severely the 
Romans were punished. 

10 Not long after Camillus had left the city, the 
yellow-haired, strong-armed Gauls, carrying their 
glittering shields before them, came sweeping down 
from northern Italy. Greatly frightened, the Ro- 
mans sent an army to meet them at the river Allia, 
15 a few miles north of the city. Here the Romans 
were terribly defefated. 

The Gauls, after the victory, instead of marching 
on, stupidly spent two or three days in pillage and 
in feasting. This gave the Romans a little time to 
20 prepare for an assault on the city. The sacred ves- 
sels of the temple were buried, and the vestal virgins 
hurried away, carrying the sacred fire to a safer 
place. The helpless inhabitants fled ; only a small 
garrison was left in the Capitol. The aged senators 
26 felt that it would be unworthy of their dignity to 
flee. Arrayed in their robes of state, and holding 
their ivory scepters, they seated themselves in their 
chairs in the Forum, and calmly awaited their fate. 


195 


When Brennus and his Gauls entered the city, 
they found the gates wide open. Reaching the 
Forum, they saw the venerable senators seated 
there motionless as statues. At first they thought 
that they must be gods. A curious Gaul ap- 6 
proached one of them and stroked his beard, and 
the insulted senator struck him in the face. Then 
the Gauls fell upon them and massacred them all. 

After plundering and burning the city, they 
wished to attack the Capitol. They chose someio 
light and agile men, who, at night, scaled the pre- 
cipitous steep. They might have surprised and 
captured the small garrison, had it not been for the 
cackling of some sacred geese. Thus aroused, the 
Romans seized their weapons, and the Gauls were 16 
killed and thrown from the rocky fortress. 

After a time, Brennus became discouraged. His 
soldiers in the marshes were suffering from fever, 
and he was anxious to go home ; so he told the 
Romans that he would leave if they would pay 20 
him a ransom of a thousand pounds of gold. The 
Romans could do nothing but yield, and the sum 
was raised from the temple treasures and the 
ornaments of the Roman women. As the money 
was being weighed, the Romans complained that 26 
the Gauls were using false weights. Whereupon 
Brennus threw his sword into the scales, exclaim- 
ing, « Woe to the vanquished I ” 







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THK SACRED GEESB 


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At this critical moment Camillas appeared. He 
scattered the barbarians with heavy blows, shout- 
ing, “Rome is ransomed with steel and not with 
gold ! ” So the Gauls left, and the city was re- 
built. This forms a picturesque story, but if all 5 
the truth was really known, we imagine that the 
Gauls won a greater victory than the Romans were 
willing to acknowledge. 

And now as you recall the lives of the three 
« C’s ” — Coriolanus, Cincinnatus, and Camillas — lo 
which one would you rather have been, and why ? 
We must remember them, for they reveal to us so 
perfectly the courage and simplicity of the Roman 
character in the times of the republic. Perhaps of 
all the Roman tales of this age the most striking isi5 
that of Marcus Curtius. 

When the ' Romans were rebuilding their city, 
after the invasion of the Gauls, there was an earth- 
quake, and a great chasm opened in the Forum. 
The augurs told the people that the gods were 20 
angry, and that they must appease them by their 
most precious offerings. So gold and jewels were 
thrown into the chasm, but it would not close. 
Then the augurs declared that courage was the 
most precious thing* in Rome. And now appeared 26 
a brave Patrician youth named Marcus Curtius. 
He arrayed himself in festal robes, put on his . 
armor, took his shield and sword, and mounting. 


198 


his horse, leaped headlong into the chasm ; thus 
offering to the gods courage and devotion, the most 
valued treasures of the Roman youth. The chasm 
at once closed I 


Pyrrhus 

6 Thus far in our story of Rome it has seemed 
very difficult to know just what to believe, but 
the life of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, brings us to the 
third century before Christ, and this is a really 
historic age. 

10 The Romans had fought hard for existence, and 
now had become the rulers of central Italy, and 
established a regular standing army. 

Our next points of interest will be Tarentum, 
Epirus, Sicily, and Carthage ; and before beginning 
16 the war with Pyrrhus, it will be well to find them 
all on the map. 

The Greek cities in southern Italy, of which 
Tarentum was the richest and most prominent, did 
not like Rome, and were determined that they 
20 would not submit to its power. 

The people of Tarentum made the Romans 
promise that they never would send their vessels 
into its waters. But one day as they were enjoy- 
ing a play in the open-air theater, what was their 
26 surprise to see some Roman galleys sailing past ! 

On a sudden impulse they rushed from the 


199 


theater, put out in boats, and captured four or five 
of them. 

The Romans at once sent an envoy to ask an 
explanation. He spoke Greek so badly that the 
Tarentines laughed at him and threw mud on his 5 
white toga. The envoy, telling them that his toga 
would soon be washed out in torrents of their 
blood, went home, and the Romans at once de- 
clared war. The Tarentines were frightened, for 
they were a weak people and did not know how lO 
to fight. 

They finally decided to ask Pyrrhus, king of 
Epirus, to come over and win their battles for 
them. 

Pyrrhus was a cousin of Alexander the Great, 16 
and a brilliant and fascinating man. His one 
great ambition was to Conquer Rome and Carthage, 
and so to found an empire in the West like the one 
which Alexander had tried to establish in the 
East. He came from Greece to Italy with a 20 
goodly army of horse- and foot-soldiers, but the 
most valuable thing which he brought was twenty 
elephants, which in Italy were called «a new kind 
of oxen.” 

The first battle began well for the Romans ; but 26 
when the elephants made a mad onset, and 
trampled everything before them, the Romans, 
who never had seen such huge animals before, were 


200 


struck with terror and fled in dismay. Pyrrhus 
won the battle, but he lost so many troops that he 
said, “With another such victory I must return to 
Epirus.” He was enthusiastic over the Roman 
5 soldiers and their manner of fighting, and ex- 
claimed, “Had I such soldiers I should soon be 
master of the world ! ” 

After the battle, Pyrrhus sent an embassy tc 
Rome led by his eloquent minister Cineas, who, 
10 according to the Greek custom, carried gifts and 
offered terms of peace. The former were rejected 
haughtily by the wives of the senators, who said 
that they did not take bribes. 

The senate hesitated about accepting the terms 
16 of peace offered by Pyrrhus until blind old Appius 
Claudius was led into the senate. He settled the 
matter by saying, “ Rome will treat with no in- 
vader while he stands on Italian soil.” 

Then the Romans sent the honest Fabricius to 
20 make terms with Pyrrhus in his tent. Pyrrhus 
was charmed with Fabricius, and promised him 
more gold than could be found in Rome, if only he 
would enter his service ; but the sturdy Fabricius 
replied, “ Poverty, with a good name, is better 
2^ than wealth.” 

Then Pyrrhus tried to frighten him. 

While they were talking, a hanging at one end 
of the tent was drawn aside, and there stood an 



THE BUND APPIXJS CLAUDIUS USD INTO THE SENATE 



202 


enormous elephant which raised its trunk and 
trumpeted loudly. Fabricius, looking up, said 
quietly, “ I am neither to be bribed by your gold 
nor frightened by your great beast.” We may be 
6 sure that the prisoners were honorably discharged. 

Fabricius is as noted to-day, as in the time in 
which he lived, for his simple, straightforward 
honesty. The next year he received a letter from 
the physician of Pyrrhus, offering, for a sum of 
10 money, to poison his king. The indignant Roman 
at once sent the letter to Pyrrhus, adding, “ You 
choose your friends and foes badly ; this letter will 
show you that you make war with your friends 
and trust rogues and knaves.” Fabricius also sent 
15 back the traitor in irons, and Pyrrhus, not to be 
outdone in generous action, set free all the cap- 
tives, saying, “ It is easier to turn the sun from its 
course than Fabricius from the path of honor.” 
Pyrrhus gained one more victory, but he lost so 
20 many of his soldiers that he could not follow it up. 

Then he went to Sicily to help the Greeks to 
fight against the new power of Carthage, but he 
met with no success, and, hearing that the Romans 
were advancing, he went again to Italy. At Bene- 
25ventum he met the brave Roman general, Denta- 
tus. This time the Romans were sure of victory, 
for they had learned the secret that elephants are 
frightened by fire, and they threw firebrands 


203 


among them. And now the elephants instead of 
the Romans scattered in terror and confusion. 

Pyrrhus was conquered, and after nine years his 
dream of empire was shattered, and he went back 
to Epirus a disappointed king. 

Tarentum now yielded to Rome. 

Dentatus enjoyed the grandest triumph ever 
seen, for several elephants marched in the proces- 
sion through the streets. 

Rome now had conquered all Italy. Colonies 
were established throughout the country as mili- 
tary posts, and these were connected by magnifi- 
cent paved roads, all of which led to Rome. 

Hannibal 

Hannibal was one of the knights of the olden 
times, about whom boys and girls delight to read. 
He was the hero of the Second Punic War. There 
were three of these wars, and they lasted from 264 
to 146 B.c. They took their name “ Punic ” from 
Poeni, the Latin word for Phoenicians, because Car- 
thage, a Phoenician colony, fought in them. The 
cause was a quarrel between Rome and Carthage 
as to which city should be greater. Rome was 
trying to become mistiness of all southern Europe 
and western Asia ; while Carthage, over the sea, 
claimed most of northern Africa, a part of Spain, 
and many islands in the Mediterranean. 


5 

10 

15 

20 

25 


204 


We remember Carthage in legendary days as 
Queen Dido’s city. When her husband had been 
killed, and she was escaping from her wicked 
brother Pygmalion in Tyre, she asked for just as 
6 much land as a bullock’s hide would cover. Then,' 
with her attendants, she sailed for what is now 
the coast of Tunis, in northern Africa. She cut 
the hide into narrow strips, and with it inclosed 
ground which, in time, became a city, twenty-three 
10 miles in circuit. 

Carthage was called the “ City of Merchants,” 
with beautiful temples, villas, and gardens, brave 
with skilled seamen, and wealthy from its com- 
merce with many lands. As you see on the map, 
15 Rome and Carthage faced each other across the 
water. The question was. Which one should have 
all the world? Of course they must fight, and 
Sicily, in the Mediterranean, just between the two 
cities, was the scene of the first contest. 

20 It was in this way that the war began. The 
Carthaginians owned most of Sicily, and some 
pirates seized one of their cities, Messana, and asked 
the Romans to help them to keep it. The senate 
did not think it right to assist robbers, but the 
26 temptation was too strong to resist, and very soon 
Rome also had gained a foothold in Sicily. But 
Rome had an army and Carthage a navy — so 
how could they fight with each other ? The 


205 


Carthaginians begged the Romans nor to meddle 
with the sea, for it belonged alone to them, and 
they would never allow the Romans even to wash 
their hands in it. The Romans thought differ- 
ently, and at once seized a Carthaginian galle}^ 5 
that had been wrecked on the coast. Taking this 
for a model, they built their own galleys, and in 
sixty days one hundred and twenty of these were 
ready for service. While they were being made, 
the Roman soldiers had practiced the motion of 10 
rowing on long benches placed on the beach. 

Soon the Romans began to win victories at sea. 
When Duillius had gained the first one, his country- 
men were so proud of him that they gave him a 
temple. 15 

The 'First Punic War was fought principally on 
the sea, in Sicily, and in Africa, and Regulus was 
its hero. Battles were won and lost on both sides, 
but Carthage was discouraged by the terms of 
peace, for Sicily became a province of Rome. 20 

After the war, Hamilcar, the father of Hannibal^ 
tried to make Carthage very strong. After a time, 
it was thought best to send Hamilcar to Spain, 
and we have our first glimpse of little Hannibal 
when, as a lad, he is standing with his father before 25 
an altar and swearing eternal enmity to Rome. 

Young Hannibal went with his father to Spain, 
and, under his wise training there, grew into an 


206 


honest, manly youth, the idol of the soldiers. The 
thing which he most enjoyed was a fine horse, and, 
when he was only eighteen, he was appointed to 
the charge of the cavalry. 

6 He was at Hamilcar’s side when he died in bat- 
tle, and then Hannibal became commander-in-chief 
of the army. He was then twenty-six years old. 
Both Romans and Carthaginians claimed power in 
Spain, and when Hannibal took from the former 
10 their fine city of Saguntum, the Romans declared 
war against Carthage. Thus commenced the Sec- 
ond Punic War. 

At once, Hannibal decided what he would do. 
Leaving his brother Hasdrubal in command in 
16 Spain, he resolved to cross the Alps, go down into 
Italy, and conquer Rome. His passage of the Alps 
is one of the wonders of history. As the men and 
animals toiled up the snow-covered mountains, be- 
numbed with cold and famished with hunger, rude 
20 mountaineers rolled down stones upon them, ava- 
lanches overwhelmed them, and many slipped over 
icy rocks into terrible crevasses. It was, indeed, a 
marvel that, one fourth of his army lived to tell 
the story, but they appeared in Italy as twenty -six 
25 thousand “ heroic shadows.” 

^ ) The warlike Gauls joined the Carthaginians, and 
the frightened Romans, hastily collecting their army, 
advanced to meet Hannibal. 


207 


The Carthaginians gained three victories; then 
Fabius ’was appointed Roman dictator against 
them. He determined to avoid another pitched 
battle ; but, instead, with his army he followed and 
watched the Carthaginians, and injured them in 6 
every possible way. So the Romans named him 
“ Fabius the Delayer.” 

Fabius was doing the wisest thing; but the 
Romans thought him too slow, and so they re- 
called him and hurried on a battle at Cannae inio 
the year 216 b.c. 

This was the worst defeat that the Romans ever 
had known, for they lost ten times as many sol- 
diers as their opponents. After the battle, Hanni- 
bal sent to Carthage whole bushels of gold rings, 15 
taken from the fingers of the Romans. 

Hannibal now made the great mistake of his 
life ; for if he had marched at once into Rome, 
probably the city would have fallen into his hands. 
Instead, he went to Capua, which opened its gates 20 
to him, and soon he was master of the whole of 
southern Italy. It is said that he did march once 
to the gates of Rome, and threw into it a burning 
torch ; and that afterward mothers would frighten 
their children by saying, “ Hannibal’s at the gate ! ” 25 

He remained in southern Italy for thirteen years, 
and his men became weakened by the beautiful 
climate and the luxurious living. 


208 


At last, Hannibal sorely needed troops and 
money, and he begged Carthage to send them, but 
no response came to his repeated requests, and he 
grew discouraged. 

5 Meantime the Romans were not to be frightened 
by defeat. They raised a new army, principally of 
boys and slaves and criminals ; and for arms, they 
took the spoils of war which they had hung in the 
temple and dedicated to the gods. 

10 Realizing the strength of the Romans, and feel- 
ing that something must be done, Hannibal asked 
Hasdrubal, his brother, to come with his army from 
Spain and join him in Italy. 

Hasdrubal promised and started. But the Ro- 
15 mans, knowing that one Carthaginian army was 
enough for Italy, met and defeated him. 

Hannibal first learned of the bad news when his 
brother’s head was thrown into his camp. 

Truly, as has been said, Hannibal « saw in that 
20 dead face the fate of Carthage.” 

A Roman army under Scipio now carried the 
war over into Africa, and Hannibal was recalled. 

Hannibal had lost an eye in Italy, his army was 
exhausted, and he was to return to Carthage after 
26 an absence of thirty-six years. He had not been 
home since the time when, as a boy, he had sworn 
enmity to Rome and had gone with his father to 
Spain. Now he must return to fight the youthful 


209 


Scipio, at the head of a vigorous and conquering 
army. 

Hannibal, very sad, sailed away from beautiful 
Italy, and, just as he had prophesied, he went home 
to be defeated. 6 

The battle was fought at Zama, 202 b.c. 

The Romans won, and the Carthaginians were 
obliged to surrender elephants, ships, and spoils, 
and to pay an immense tribute ; what was harder, 
they must promise never again to make war with lo 
any country without the consent of the Romans. 

Scipio returned home as Scipio Africanus, and a 
splendid triumph was given him. As he rode 
through the streets of Rome, in the midst of ap- 
plause and admiration, he had with him a slave, 16 
who, from time to time, whispered in his ear, “ Re- 
member that thou art mortal ! ” Scipio was always 
one of the most loved and honored of Roman 
generals. 

After the war, Hannibal became chief magistrate 20 
of Carthage. He reformed the government, and 
once more prosperous days came to the city ; but 
his ungrateful countrymen were jealous of the great 
man, and sent word to Rome that he was trying 
to bring on another war. Then the Romans, who 26 
seemed. as much afraid of the statesman Hannibal 
over the sea as of the general Hannibal in Italy, 
insisted that he should be banished from Carthage- 


T 


210 


While the Carthaginians were thinking what they 
would do with him, he saved them the trouble of a 
decision by fleeing to the court of Antiochus, king 
of Syria. But Rome was spreading her conquering 
5 arms everywhere, Syria became a Roman province, 
and Hannibal must move on. This dark-skinned 
hero was growing old and gray, but the fire of his 
hatred never died, and always he was trying to 
rouse the enemies of Rome. He fled next to the 
ioking of Bithynia, who agreed to surrender Hanni- 
bal to the Romans. Then, disheartened, the famous 
leader determined to take poison, which he kept 
concealed in a ring, for he said, « Let us rid the 
Romans of their terrors since they are unwilling 
15 to wait for the death of an old man like me.” 

Noble, hi^roic Hannibal ! always steadfast to the 
oath of his boyhood ! He was very brave, either as 
a victorious or a defeated hero. He stands as a 
true patriot by the side of Julius Caesar and our 
20 own George Washington. 

Cato 

After the Second Punic War, fifty years passed, 
during which time Carthage was redovering her 
prosperity, and Rome was making so many con- 
quests that her martial pride was becoming v<iry 
25 great. 


211 


We turn aside now from the heroic dayB of 
the old republic to the new city of Rome, fast 
growing splendid and luxurious. Just at this 
time, there lived in Italy “ a rough, stern mab, 
with red hair, projecting teeth, and coarse robe,” 5 
whose name was Cato. He was destined to be- 
come prominent as the Censor.” He believed in 
a simple, quiet life, and he lived on his small 
Sabine farm, dressing like his servants, and eating 
at the table with them. In the Second Punic lO 
War he had left his home, buckled on his armor, 
and fought against Hannibal, and in several con- 
tests had shown great valor. After the war was 
over, he was persuaded by his friends to go to 
Rome to live, and there he practiced law; The 16 
growing luxury of the city troubled him greatly; 
and he severely criticised jewelry, rich robes, and 
costly furniture, trying hard to restore the plain 
living of the olden days. 

Cato found much time for literary labor. PIe-20 
wrote at least one hundred and fifty orations, and 
a, work on medicine. In this he opposes Greek 
physicians, and recommends simple remedies. He 
wrote seven books called the « Origines,” a history 
of his country, which takes its name from the first 25 
three books which told about the origin of Rome 
and the Italian states. 

Cato held various offices in Rome, and finally 


212 


became censor, much to the disgust of some of the 
splendor-loving senators. A censor had moral over- 
sight of the people, and if he thought that either a 
citizen or a senator did wrong, he could remove him 
6 from office. This was great liberty to give a man 
whose whole life seemed to be spent in stanch 
resistance to luxury, but Cato is said to have used 
his power moderately. About this time the king 
of Numidia attacked Carthage. Carthage asked 
10 Rome for protection, and an embassy was sent 
over to Africa to inquire into the trouble. Cato 
was one of the messengers. He was greatly sur- 
prised to find that Carthage was a most beautiful 
city, with gardens and villas, and fine harbor and 
15 prosperous trade, and he returned to Rome feeling 
that it must be destroyed. He at once carried to 
the senate a bunch of fresh figs which he had 
brought home, and from their freshness he argued 
how near Rome was to Carthage. «« So fresh, so 
20 near to us is Carthage.” From that time, growing 
more and more jealous of the rival city, he finished 
every speech with the words, Delenda est Car 
thago!^^ (Carthage must be destroyed.) The Ro- 
mans had great faith in Cato’s wisdom, and, on a 
26 slight pretext, war was declared. 

The Carthaginians submissively gave up hos- 
tages, weapons, and armor, but when they were 
bidden to leave their city they were driven to 


213 


despair. The city became a great workshop. Old 
and young toiled at the forges to make new arms. 
Not only jewelry and vases of gold and silver, but 
even the statues of the gods were melted, and the 
women braided their long hair into bowstrings. 6 

When Scipio appeared with his Roman soldiers, 
they were surprised to find the Carthaginians 
ready for strong defense. Men and women fought 
desperately ; but at last, in the year 146 b.c., the 
city fell and was given up to seventeen days of 10 
plunder and conflagration. But few inhabitants 
were saved alive, and these were sold into slavery. 

It is said that when Scipio beheld the desolation 
of the city, he burst into tears, and then quoted 
Horace’s words, thinking that they might yet prove 15 
true about proud Rome : — 

" The day will come when Troy shall sink in fire, 

And Priam’s people with himself expire.” 

The news of the victory brought great rejoicing 
to the Romans, and a splendid triumph was awarded 20 
to Scipio. Cato’s desire was accomplished, for Car- 
thage had been destroyed ! 

The Gracchi 

One of the loveliest pictures which we recall 
from the pages of Roman history is that of Cor- 
nelia, the mother of the Gracchi, surrounded by 25 




CORNELIA AND HER SONS 






215 


her children. • Dressed in her stola, a long, graceful 
garment, girded at the waist, we may imagine the 
noble Roman matron seated or reclining in her 
atrium, the living room of tlie household, perhaps 
dining with her children; or again, making with 6 
them the daily offering at the hearth to the house- 
hold gods ; or, in the midst of her maidens, spin- 
ning and weaving the garments for the children to 
wear. 

Cornelia was the daughter of Scipio African us, lO 
and much as she honored her father’s brilliant vic- 
tories over Hannibal, she was prouder of her sons, 
the Gracchi, than even of the great Scipio. Her 
husband died when her children were very young, 
but she determined to give them the best educa-i 5 
tion. At this time there were good schools in 
Rome, and probably Tiberius and Caius Gracchus 
— for these were the names of the boys — went 
every day. They were accompanied by a slave 
who carried their books, writing tablets, and count- 20 
ing boards, and also by a pedagogue- or Greek 
tutor, who, as they walked, instructed them in the 
Greek language and literature, in art, music, sci- 
ence, and philosophy. They were taught rhetoric 
and declamation also; and we are sure that in 26 
these studies Tiberius and Caius did well, for both 
became such famous orators. 

One day a rich lady visiting Cornelia showed to 


216 


her some magnificent jewels. Cornelia asked her 
to wait a little, saying that she wished to display 
her own. When her children returned from school, 
she brought them to her friend, and proudly said, 
6 « These are my jewels ! ” 

While Tiberius and Caius were growing up, 
there was a contest in the city between the rich 
• and the poor, for “ Rome had become a common- 
wealth of millionaires and beggars.” The million- 
10 aires had gained their wealth from the spoils of 
conquered cities, and the poor had grown poorer, 
their little farms having been desolated by the wars 
of Hannibal. 

When Tiberius, the elder of Cornelia’s « jewels,” 
15 had reached the age of seventeen, he buckled on 
his sword and was sent to join the army ; and, as 
he traveled through Italy, he was shocked at see- 
ing the desolation of the country. The noble pas- 
sions were aroused within him. On his return he 
20 became a noted champion of the poor and such a 
popular orator that he stirred the hearts of the 
people to their very depths. In one of his speeches 
he said, ‘‘ You are called ‘ Lords of the Earth,’ with- 
out possessing a single clod to call your own.” By 
25 such words he urged on the Romans, and they 
made him a tribune. After much difficulty, Tibe- 
rius managed to pass an agrarian law, giving land 
to the people. When the dying king of Pergamus 


217 


left a large sum of money to Rome, Tiberius begged 
that it might be given to the poor to enable them 
to stock their farms. The nobles were indignant 
and determined to silence Tiberius, and they spread 
a report that he was trying to gain a crown. 5 

He was attacked with his followers in the Forum, 
and with three hundred others was killed and 
thrown into the Tiber. 

Cains Gracchus was nine years younger than 
his brother, and as soon as he became of age he 10 
took up his brother’s work. His mother besought 
him to take warning from the fate of Tiberius, but 
he told her that his brother had appeared to him in 
a dream, saying, “ Caius, why do you linger ? there 
is no escape ; one life for both of us and one death is 
in defense of the people is our fate.” 

The schemes of Caius sfeemed even greater than 
those of Tiberius. He determined in every way 
to weaken the influence of the nobles. He be- 
came tribune, and had new laws made by which 20 
corn might be freely distributed to the poor. He 
also found work for them upon roads and bridges. 
He tried to establish colonies all over Italy, and 
upon the ruins of Carthage. While the senators 
were bent upon his destruction a battle took place 26 
in the street. Caius fled with a faithful slave into 
a sacred grove, whence he hoped to reach the 
Tiber, but he was surrounded, and resolving not 


218 


to fall alive into the hands of the enemy, he com- 
manded the slave to kill him. The slave did as 
he was told, and then, in grief for his' master, fell 
on his own sword. 

6 Three thousand of the followers of Cains were 
either imprisoned or killed. The Gracchi were 
true martyrs in the cause of freedom, but their 
work was at once overthrown, and for long the 
Romans were not allowed to speak their names. 
10 Poor Cornelia was not permitted to wear mourn- 
ing for her sons, and she returned broken-hearted 
to her country home. Later, however, statues 
were erected to the brothers in the public square 
of Rome, and a monument was placed also in 
15 memory of Cornelia. It bore the simple yet im- 
pressive inscription, “ The Mother of the Gracchi.” 

Spartacus 

Between the death of the Gracchi in the second 
century before Christ and the rule of Julius Caesar 
in the first, there were very many plots and fac- 
20 tions and leaders in Rome ; but in spite of its trom 
bles, the city was winning new victories. 

Between the years 72-71 b.c. the gladiatorial 
wars took place. Gladiatorial combats had become 
a favorite amusement among the Romans. No fes- 
25 tival was complete without one. The bravest cap- 
tives taken in war were kept in training-schools, 


219 


]earning how to slaughter one another in the 
amphitheater. The brilliant audience, frantic with 
excitement, urged on the fighters, shouting wild ap- 
plause, as they watched the onset. 

When badly wounded, the gladiators dropped 6 
their weapons and held up their forefingers, begging 
for life. If they saw the audience with thumbs 
turned, and waving handkerchiefs, they knew that 
there was mercy for them ; but clenched fists meant 
their certain death. lO 

In one of the training-schools in Capua was Spar- 
tacus, a Thracian captive, and he revolted from a 
fate so terrible. He influenced the men about him, 
and they forcibly broke away from the prison and, 
seizing some weapons, fought their way to Mount 15 
Vesuvius. There they took refuge in the crater. 

In that strange place, the gallant Spartacus pro- 
claimed freedom to all who would join him. 
Thither flocked slaves and pirates and discontented 
peasants, and in time his army numbered over one 20 
hundred thousand men. For nearly three years, 
they bade defiance to Rome. Their camp became 
like a great fair, filled with all kinds of plunder. 
Merchants came to buy of them, and in payment 
they would receive nothing but bronze and iron, 25 
which, with their forges, they at once converted 
into weapons. 

Spartacus was clear-sighted, and he knew that 


220 


his band could not defy the Romans for long. He 
begged his followers to try with him to force their 
way out of Italy, that they might reach their homes 
in Gaul, Spain, and Thrace. But the gladiators 
6 refused, because the plunder of Italy was so very 
tempting. 

After a time, a famous Roman named Crassus, 
the richest man of his day, determined to rid Italy 
of the foe, and with his army he crowded Spartacus 
10 and his men into southern Italy. Still feeling that 
they would better leave the country, Spartacus bar- 
gained with some pirates to carry them over in 
their wicker boats to Sicily. The pirates promised, 
and were paid for the passage. Then they weak- 
isened in their purpose and sailed away, leaving the 
men to their fate. To prevent their escape to the 
north, Crassus threw up a wall across the isthmus ; 
but the gladiators broke through it, and hurried 
northward, only to be terribly defeated by Crassus. 
20 Spartacus was killed, but five thousand of his 
followers escaped and fled toward the Alps. There 
they were met by another distinguished Roman, 
Pompey the Great, who was just returning from 
victories in Spain. He killed them all, and in ways 
26 so cruel that their terrible fate proved a warning to 
any slaves who might ever be tempted to rise in 
rebellion against Rome. 

In the gladiatorial shows, not only gladiators but 


221 


even Christian martyrs, and among them beautiful 
young girls, were brought into the arena. There 
they were attacked by lions, elephants, and hippo- 
potami, and other wild animals, brought from a far 
country and goaded on to fury « to make a Roman 5 
holiday.” 

For these shows the Colosseum was built. It 
held eighty thousand spectators, and when it was 
dedicated, five thousand animals were thrown into 
the arena. It was also used for chariot-races audio 
magnificent shows of all kinds. The combats 
went on for hundreds of years, to be ended later, 
like many other evils, by the simple power of 
Christianity. 

It was in the reign of Honorius, in the fifth cen-is 
tury after Christ, that one day, in the midst of the 
contests, a Christian monk descended into the arena, 
and rushing between the combatants, tried to sepa- 
rate them. He was killed instantly, but the heart 
of the emperor was touched, and the martyrdom 20 
of the monk Telemachus accomplished more than 
Spartacus with all his fighters, for there was is- 
sued an imperial edict, which forever abolished 
gladiatorial combats. 

"I see before me the gladiator lie 5 26 

He leans upon his hand, — his manly brow 
Consents to death, but conquers agony. 

And his drooped head sinks gradually low, 






A CHARIOT RACE 



223 


And through his side the last drops, ebbing slow 
From the red gash fall heavy, one by one. 

Like the first of a thunder shower ; and now 
The arena swims around him : he is gone. 

Ere ceased the inhuman shout which hailed the wretch who 6 
won. 

He heard it, but he heeded not : his eyes 
Were with his heart, and that was far away; 

He recked not of the life he lost nor prize, 

But where his rude hut by the Danube lay, 

There were his young barbarians all at play, 10 

There was their Dacian mother, — he, their sire, 

Butchered to make a Koman holiday, — 

All this rushed with his blood. Shall he expire, 

And unavenged ? Arise ! ye Goths, and glut your ire ! ” 

— Byron. 


Julius Caesar 

The first century before Christ presented a great 15 
contrast to the virtuous days of the old republic. 
The years were full of strife and bribery and con- 
quest, the law was little respected, and there were 
always two or three rival candidates, each striving 
to be leader. 20 

Rome really needed one man to govern it, and 
Julius Caesar was to be that man. Shakespeare 
calls him “ the foremost man of all the world.” 

Let us now read about Julius Caesar, and then 
each of us may form his own opinion. 25 


224 


He belonged to the illustrious Julian family in 
Rome, and claimed to be descended from the gods. 
He was born about 100 b.c. His father died when 
he was sixteen, and his mother had him educated 
6 very carefully. 

He was a tall, handsome young fellow, with a 
kind of fascination about him that always belongs 
to those who lead others. 

Once, while on the Mediterranean, Csesar was 
10 attacked and taken prisoner by some pirates. He 
treated them very courteously, and entered into 
their amusements. They liked him so much that 
they really regarded him as their leader. 

He asked them what price his ransom should 
15 be, and when they named a small sum, he told 
them that it was not enough and that he should 
double it. After payment, he was dismissed. At 
once he fitted up a small fleet, followed the pirates, 
overhauled their vessels, and nailed them all on 
20 crosses. 

Pompey and Crassus were now the leading men 
in Rome, and Caesar was given a command in 
Spain, and there he gained military honors. On 
his return to Rome, he found that there was much 
25 jealousy between Pompey and Crassus: one was 
trying to please the Romans by giving shows, and 
the other by giving feasts. 

Caesar proposed they should all three join in a 


225 


kind of league called a triumvirate, to oppose the 
senate and get the power into their own hands — 
Caesar giving his brains ; Crassus, his money ; and 
Pompey, the influence which he had gained through 
great military services. 5 

So in 60 B.c. the First Triumvirate was formed, 
composed of Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar. Later 
Caesar went to Gaul, and Crassus to Syria, and 
Pompey remained in Rome. 

Before reading further into Caesar’s life, we must lo 
become better acquainted with his great rival 
Pompey. Pompey had already done great deeds. 
He had been successful in Gaul and Spain. We 
remember that he destroyed the five thousand 
gladiators fleeing from Italy. Perhaps his mostis 
brilliant campaign had been his conquest over 
pirates who infested the Mediterranean. They 
had become so rich that the}^ had warehouses full 
of plunder, their galleys carried silken sails, oars 
inlaid with ivory, and bronze prows. 20 

These galleys had attacked merchant and wheat 
<^essels on the sea, and towns along the coast, steal- 
ing men, women, and children for ransom. They 
spread terror wherever they went. Pompey was 
appointed dictator to rid the w'aters of such bold 26 
robbers ; and after ninety days he was successful. 

Then he fought bravely in the East, in Asia 
Minor and Syria, defeating, among other rulers, 


226 


the great Mithridates, king of Pontus, who haa 
troubled the Romans for many years. And a worn 
derful man was Mithridates ! He was the swiftest 
of runners, could drive sixteen horses in a chariot- 
6 race, speak twenty-two languages, and do many 
other remarkable things. 

After all Pompey’s victories, he had returned to 
Rome, where a splendid triumph was given him. 

Then the First Triumvirate was formed, of 
0 which we have already spoken. 

Caesar now went with his legions to Gaul, in the 
year 58 b.c., and he remained . there for eight years. 

Hordes of warlike barbarians were crossing the 
Rhine and establishing themselves in Gaul, and 
6 Caesar felt that they must be pushed back. Gaul 
was soon converted into a great battle-field. 

As we are reading about Caesar’s Gallic cam- 
paigns, it may be interesting to know something 
about the formation of the Roman army. The 
20 largest body of men was the legion, numbering 
from three to six thousand soldiers.' This was 
divided into cohorts, companies, and centuries. 
The century contained a hundred men, and its 
officer was called a centurion. At the head of the 
25 army a gilt eagle was carried — Rome’s emblem of 
pride and victory. 

The drill of the soldiers consisted in running, 
jumping, and swimming in full armor, and in 


227 


marching for long distances at the rate of four 
miles an hour. On the march each soldier carried 
besides his arms enough grain to last from seven- 
teen to thirty days ; and, also, stakes and intrench- 
ing tools, so that in a halt ditches could be dug 6 
and palisades made to prevent sudden attacks. 

The principal machines were the ballista for 
dinging stones the catapult, for hurling darts ; 
the battering-ram, for making breaches in the walls 
of a city; and the movable tower which could beio 
placed close to the fortifications, and from the top 
of which stones and darts could be thrown. 

Caesar went everywhere with his men, swimming 
rivers, plunging into morasses, climbing mountains, 
and in the field he was always in the thickest of 15 
the fight. Twice he crossed the Rhine and fright- 
ened the Germans ; and twice he went to Britain, 
an island before this known only by name to the 
Romans. When he had conquered the tribes he 
tried to civilize them and to make them contented 20 
under Roman rule, and he built many Roman roads. 
Sometimes the barbarians would feel the spirit of 
revolt and the desire for liberty, but many of them 
learned to know and love the will of their leader. 
Finally, CaBsar conquered Gaul after eight years of 25 
heroic struggle. 

Right in the midst of the warfare, he wrote his 
famous « Commentaries,” in such pure and polished 


228 


Latin that even to-day in every school they are 
models ox Latin composition. 

The “ Commentaries ” tell us in a clear and vivid 
way the true story of the conflict, as the “ Roman 
6 Eagle ” marched on its conquering career over the 
whole of Gaul, and even into the German forests, 
and up the white cliffs of Dover. It is said that 
Caesar could read, write, and dictate from four to 
seven letters at once. 

10 During the years in which Caesar was away, he 
was sending to Rome wonderful spoils which daz- 
zled the eyes of the people, and at one time a 
public thanksgiving of fifteen days was made in 
Rome in honor of his victories. 

16 Crassus, the third member of the Triumvirate, 
had taken possession of his province of Syria. In 
order to grow richer and to gain successes in the 
East that might rival those of Caesar in the West, 
he set out to conquer the Parthians. His army 

20 was attacked suddenly by a shower of arrows, sent 
by these wild horsemen, and, in attempting to re- 
treat, Crassus was killed. With his death in 66 
B.c. ended the Triumvirate. 

Caesar lost in Crassus one of his truest friends. 

26 During the last years of Caesar’s wars in Gaul, 
he knew from many things that Pompey in Rome 
was jealous of him. The people joined with Cae- 
sar, and the senate allied itself with Pompey. 


229 


At last, under the influence of the latter, word was 
sent to Caesar that he must resign his position as 
governor of Gaul, lay down his arms, disband his 
army and return home; otherwise he would be 
considered a traitor to his country. 6 

The southern boundary between Caesar’s province 
of Gaul and Italy was the Rubicon, a famous river 
in history, but so small that to-day it is difficult to 
decide as to its exact location. No enemy to Rome 
was allowed to cross the Rubicon. 10 

When the news of the action of the senate 
reached Caesar, he decided at once what he would 
do. With one legion he hurried to the Rubicon, 
and there he paused. If he crossed, he must flght 
with Pompey ; if he retreated, he would be called 16 
a traitor. 

And the story is, that as the legion halted, a 
shepherd boy came from the neighboring fleld and 
began to play upon his pipe, and the officers gath- 
ered about him to listen. As he played, the trum-20 
peters came along, and putting down his pipe, the 
boy took one of the martial instruments and 
sounded a charge. 

« An omen ! a prodigy ! ” shouted Caesar, « the 
die is cast ! ” and the whole army hurried over the 26 
little stream. 

As they marched, town after town opened its 
gates, until it seemed as if Caesar were marching 


230 


home as a conquering general at the head of his 
troops. 

News of his coming had reached Rome, and be- 
fore he crossed the Rubicon, the senate had passed 
5 a decree deposing him from his command ; but 
after he had crossed it, and was marching trium- 
phantly toward the city, the terrified senate fled. 

Pompey set out at night with some followers 
for Brundusium, and from there crossed the Adri- 
lOatic. Within sixty days, without bloodshed, Csesar 
was ruler of all Italy. After making preparations 
to guard his coast with castles and batteries, he 
started out to conquer Pompey. He crossed the 
Adriatic and met him at Pharsalus, in Thessaly, 
15 48 B.c. Caesar had but half as many men as Pom- 
pey, but Pompey was defeated, and fled to the 
coast, and thence escaped to Egypt. 

He sent a' message to the Egyptian king, Ptolemy, 
begging him to give him shelter; but the king, 
20 thinking to please Caesar, had Pompey killed just 
as he was landing at Alexandria. His body was 
thrown into the surf, and his head was sent to 
Caesar. Caesar wept when he saw it, as he thought 
of Pompey’s. life and of Pompey’s fate. 

25 After Caesar’s arrival in Egypt, he found that 
there was a dispute there respecting the throne, 
and he remained nine months to settle it. 

The beautiful Cleopatra, the sister of the king, 


231 


wished to see Caesar, and she had herself wrapped 
in a roll of carpet and carried to him as a bale of 
goods. He was so pleased with her that he over- 
threw the reigning Ptolemy, and secured the king- 
dom for her and a younger brother. 

While in Egypt, Caesar heard that Pharnaces, son 
of the great Mithridates, was in rebellion against 
Rome ; so he went against him and defeated him, 
and in five days the war was over. Then he sent 
to the senate a message in the three words, « Veni, 
vidi, vici ” (I came, I saw, I conquered). 

Caesar now returned to the West. Hearing of 
a revolt in Africa, he went there, and in the year 
46 B.c. overcame the Republican forces in the battle 
of Thapsus ; after which the leader, Cato the Stoic, 
killed himself. Next Caesar crushed a conspiracy 
in Spain and returned to Rome. There a four 
days’ triumph was awaiting him. Every citizen 
was given a present, and the people were feasted 
in the streets on thousands of tables. There 
were no proscriptions as in Sulla’s day to mar 
the joy. 

Caesar’s statue was placed in the Capitol oppo- 
site Jupiter’s, and he was made dictator for ten 
years and censor for three. It seemed as if in a 
moment he had become “ the foremost man of all 
the world.” 

Nothing had been too great for him to accom- 


5 

10 

15 

20 

26 


232 


plish as a general ; now nothing was too great as a 
statesman. 

Order and justice were established everywhere ; 
he revised the calendar, and the month of July was 
5 named for him. He relieved the distress of the 
poor by sending colonists to rebuild Carthage and 
Corinth; he had new buildings in the city and 
country, and paved and lighted the streets. He 
guarded the boundaries of the empire, which now 
10 extended to the Rhine, Danube, and Euphrates 
rivers. 

Finally he was made dictator for life. Some 
thought that he wished to be king, and one day 
when passing through the streets he was hailed as 
16 such, and he cried out : — 

“ I am not king, but Caesar I ” 

At a festival one of his friends heard Antony 
olfer him a crown, but he thrust it aside, though 
perhaps reluctantly. 

20 But Caesar was ambitious, and the nobles envied 
him; and under the pretense that they wished 
liberty they formed a plot to assassinate him. 
The principal conspirators were Brutus and Cas- 
sius,' two men who had received much kindness 
25 from Caesar. He had a warning : «« Beware the 
Ides of March ” (the fifteenth day of that month). 

On the night before, his wife Calpurnia had a 
dream which troubled her, and she begged Caesar 


233 


not to go to the senate on that day. But he trusted 
his friends and would not be frightened. The sen- 
ate met in a new building erected by Pompey the 
Great, and in the immense hall • stood Pompey’s 
statue. 5 

As Caesar entered, the conspirators crowded 
about him, concealing their weapons. One of the 
senators struck him with a sword, and then many 
swords were drawn. 

Caesar moved back toward Pompey’s statue, lo 
and seeing the face of his friend Brutus, he ex- 
claimed, «Et tu. Brute!” (Thou, too, Brutus!) 
Pierced with twenty-three wounds, he drew his 
robe over his face, and fell at the foot of the 
statue. This was on the 15 th of March, 44 b.c. is 
The conspirators thought that they had done a 
great deed and that Rome would rejoice, but Caesar 
had been an idol of the people, and he had left a 
bequest to each Roman citizen. 

The populace vowed revenge upon the conspira-20 
tors, and Brutus and Cassius fled at once. 

The time for the observance of the funeral cere- 
monies was made known by proclamation. They 
were held in the Field of Mars, an immense parade 
ground, and a pile was made for the burning of the 25 
body. It was placed on a bed adorned with scarlet 
and cloth of gold, and at the head was put the robe 
in which Caesar had been kille^L Mark Antony pro- 


234 


nounced the funeral oration, showing the glory and 
honor which Caesar had conferred upon Rome. 

Then Antony, with Caesar’s nephew, Octavius, 
and Lepidus, one of his lieutenants, formed the 
6 Second Triumvirate, in 43 b.c., and the three men 
divided the world among themselves. They fol- 
lowed Brutus and Cassius to Philippi in Thrace, 
and there a battle was fought. Brutus and Cas- 
sius were defeated, and both committed suicide ; 
10 and so, in the year 42 b.c., Caesar’s death was 
avenged. As an orator, soldier, writer, and states- 
man, Julius Caesar was great. Do you think with 
Shakespeare that he was “ the foremost man of all 
the world ” ? 

16 « Ant. Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears. 

I come to bury Csesar, not to praise him. 

The evil that men do lives after them ; 

The good is oft interred with their bones; 

So let it be with Caesar. The noble Brutus 
20 Hath told you, Caesar was ambitious : 

If it were so, it was a grievous fault ; 

And grievously hath Caesar answered it. 

Here, under leave of Brutus, and the rest— 

(For Brutus is an honorable man, 

25 So are they all, all honorable men) — 

Come I to speak in Caesar’s funeral. 

He was my friend, faithful and just to me: 

But Brutus says, he was ambitious ; 

And Brutus is an honorable man. 

30 He hath brought many captives home to Rome^ 


$ 



ANTONY S ORATION OVER THE BODY OF C.ESAR 








236 


Whose ransoms did the general coffers fill: 

Bid this in Csesar seem ambitious ? 

When that the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept 
• Ambition should be made of sterner stuff: 

6 Yet Brutus says, he was ambitious; 

And Brutus is an honorable man. 

You all did see, that, on the Lupercal, 

I thrice presented him a kingly crown, 

Which he did thrice refuse. Was this ambition? 

10 Yet Brutus says he was ambitious ; 

And sure, he is an honorable man. 

I speak not to disprove what Brutus spoke, 

But here I am to speak what I do know. 

You all did love him once, not without cause ; 

16 What cause withholds you then to mourn for him ? 

Oh, judgment, thou art fled to brutish beasts. 

And men have lost their reason ! — Bear with me; 

My heart is in the coffin there with Caesar, 

And I must pause till it come back to me.’^ 

— Shakespeare. 

Cicero 

20 There are two men in ancient literature that 
are often associated — Demosthenes and Cicero — 
because both were famous orators. Demosthenes, 
in Greece, had, in the fourth century before Christ, 
thundered his “ Philippics ” against Philip of Mace- 

25 don ; and Cicero, in the first century before Christ, 
had determined to be the Roman Demosthenes. 
His philippics were aimed against every man who 
threatened the freedom of the Roman government. 
Cicero was born one hundred and six years before 


237 


Christ. His family loved the old Roman ways, 
especially his grandfather, who could not bear to 
have the Greek language and literature so much 
studied in Italy. Indeed, he is known to have 
said, “ The more Greek a man knows, the greater 6 
rascal he becomes.” 

Cicero’s father, however, loved books, and he 
determined that his son should have a fine edu- 
cation. Little Cicero became such a good scholar 
that the parents of the other boys would some-io 
times come to the school just to hear him recite. 

Cicero loved study more than anything else, and 
he said that no one must blame him if, while 
others were busy with all kinds of pleasure, he 
gave his time to learning. The subjects that he 15 
most enjoyed were grammar, rhetoric, and Greek 
literature, law, and oratory. 

At this time books were becoming more com- 
mon in Rome ; they were not printed like ours, 
but every one was written on either papyrus or 20 
parchment. The work was done by scribes, who 
were usually educated Greek slaves; one would 
dictate, while many would write. The finished 
book was rolled upon a stick and kept in a cir- 
cular case. 26 

Cicero read many books, and later owned a 
magnificent library, constantly adding to it rare 
books, copied by his own slaves. 


238 


Cicero traveled and studied in the famous school 
of oratory in Rhodes, and also in Athens. While 
in Greece he consulted an oracle, asking how a 
man should attain the most glory, and the excel- 
> lent response was, “ By making your own genius, 
and not the opinions of the people, the guide of 
your life.” 

When Cicero was thirty years old, he went to 
Rome, carrying a richly stored mind. He became, 
10 after a little, the most famous Latin orator of all 
the world. And it is not to the distant province, 
or on the battle-field, that we go to study his life, 
but right to the very heart of Rome, to the ros- 
trum in the Forum. The Forum was the grandest 
15 square in Rome. It was covered with splendid 
edifices and ornamented with sculptures, porticoes, 
statues, columns, and triumphal arches that told 
the deeds of the. brave Romans. There were also 
booths with goods on sale. Here assemblies and. 
20 courts of justice met; indeed, everybody came to 
the Forum to buy ahd sell and to hear tidings 
from all parts of the world. Sometime in his life 
every ambitious leader in Rome made his voice 
heard here. The rostrum was the pulpit on which 
25 the orator stood. And it took its name from the 
brazen beaks of ships with which it was adorned. 

And on the rostrum we find Cicero, the brilliant 
young orator, lifting his eloquent voice ; for more 


239 


than any other man in Rome he knew the art of 
pleasing and convincing. 

Many of his orations are read to-day ; but the 
ones in which he won his greatest triumphs are 
those against Verres and Catiline. Verres, a dis- 6 
honest Roman governor in Sicily, had for three 
years plundered the beautiful island just to make 
himself rich. The Romans were indignant at him, 
and he was impeached by Cicero and fled. 

But the best service that Cicero ever did forio 
Rome was to save the city from the conspiracy 
of Catiline. 

Catiline was a weak, reckless, ambitious young 
noble of fascinating manners. He gathered some 
idle young nobles about him. In the year 63 b.c., 15 
during Pompey’s absence in the East, Catiline 
formed a plan to murder the consuls, set fire to 
Rome, and completely overthrow the government. 
The conspirators expected help from slaves, crimi- 
nals, and gladiators in the city, and also from sol- 20 
diers in Africa and Spain. They had a secret, but 
too many were trying to keep it. So it was found 
out, and Cicero determined to punish Catiline. One 
day, in the Senate Chamber, when Catiline was 
present, Cicero boldly accused him, and in one of 25 
his fiery philippics exposed the whole plot. Cati- 
line, overwhelmed by Cicero’s eloquence, fled from 
the Senate Chamber and the city, and joined his 



CICBBO DELIVERS HT8 ORATION AGAINST THE CONSPIRATOR CATHJNB 






241 


band of conspirators. Later he was slain, fighting 
at their head, and Cicero became the Savior of 
his country.” His orations against Catiline should 
be studied by every Latin scholar. 

Cicero was a delightful letter-writer, for in every 6 
letter that he wrote he tried to express his thoughts 
clearly. Among his essays, those on “ friendship ” 
and “ old age ” are charming. 

Cicero took part with Pompey against Caesar, 
but after Pompey’s death he renewed his friend- lO 
ship with Caesar. After his assassination, Cicero 
felt that Mark Antony was assuming too much 
power, and he took the part of young Octavius, 
Caesar’s nephew. Cicero hurled against Antony 
terrible philippics, but this time he paid for his 15 
defense of freedom with his life. Octavius and 
Antony later became friends, and with Lepidus 
made a Second Triumvirate. 

Now there was a terrible proscription, in which 
, all who had spoken against any of the triumvirs 20 

I . 

were killed, and Octavius gave up Cicero because 
Antony hated him. Cicero’s friends begged him 
to flee from the country, but he said, “ Let me die 
in my Fatherland which I have so often saved.” 

It is thought that he was calmly reading his letters 25 
when he was found by Antony’s messengers. It 
was in the .year 43 b.c. that he was killed, and his 
head and hand were nailed upon the rostrum from 


242 


whence the Romans had so often been touched by 
the charm of his eloquence. 


The Age of the Twelve Csesars and the Five Good 
Emperors 

The Greeks made beautiful statues of their gods, 
but the Romans had not their genius, and instead 
6 they carved in marble likenesses of their emperors. 
These portrait statues are very famous to-day. 
They show a great variety of expression ; for ex- 
ample, there is the noble and dignified statue 
of Augustus, and then the bust of the horrible 
10 Caracalla. It seems as if the sculptor must have 
hesitated to cut the latter in marble. These por- 
trait statues and busts are in the sculpture gallery 
in Rome, and we may find copies of them in many 
art museums. 

16 We cannot study them here, but instead we will 
try to get a memory picture of each of these em- 
perors as they pass in hasty review before us. 
They are such striking men that they will not be 
difficult to remember. These are the names of the 
20 twelve Caesars : — 


1. Julius Caesar. 

2. Augustus. 

3. Tiberius. 

4. Caligula. 


5. Claudius. 

6. Nero. 

7. Galba. 

8. 0th o. 


9. Vitellius. 

10. Vespasian. 

11. Titus. 

12. Domitian. 


243 


We recall, as the first, the great warrior and 
statesman, Julius Caesar. After his death his 
young nephew Octavius came to Rome, and with 
Antony and Lepidus, formed the Second Triumvi- 
rate. Lepidus was soon set aside, and Antony in 6 
Egypt was so carried away with the charms of the 
beautiful queen Cleopatra that he lost his military 
fame. The Romans made war against him, and 
his defeat in the battle of Actium, 31 b.c., left 
Octavius master of the Roman Empire. Taking lo 
the name of Augustus, he became the first emperor ; 
but warned by the fate of Julius Caesar, he did 
not take a kingly title. He lived very simply. 
His wife Livia wove his toga ; he walked the street 
like any other citizen, and he charmed the people 15 
by his kindly manner. 

No pirates or barbarians now threatened Italy, 
civil war was over, and the gates of the temple of 
Janus were closed. It is true that in a distant 
German forest. Varus, the general of Augustus, 20 
was defeated by Arminius, the freedom-loving Ger- 
man, and that when Augustus heard this, he cried, 

« 0 Varus, Varus, give me back my legions ! ” • But 
no danger disturbed Rome itself, and no other city 
can compare with the Rome of the Augustan Age. 25 
Augustus boasted that he “ found it a city of brick, 
and left it a city of marble.” He adorned it with 
beautiful palaces and temples, the most famous 


244 


one being the Pantheon ; although this was built 
nearly two thousand years ago, it is used to-day 
as a place of Christian worship. Augustus was 
a patron of art and learning, and his reign is called 
6 the “Golden or Augustan Age ” of Roman literature. 
Virgil, who wrote the “^neid,” and Horace, the 
poet whom the people loved best, were among the 
many distinguished men who lived at this time. 

But there was one fact which made the reign 
10 of Augustus more famous than that of any other 
emperor. In the year 4 b.c. Christ, the Prince of 
Peace, was born in Bethlehem of Judea. The 
month of August was named in honor of Augus- 
tus, and Christmas in honor of the birth of Christ. 
16 Now, turning from Augustus, we draw from the 
reign of his successor Tiberius, a very dark picture ; 
for he was a mean and jealous man who poisoned 
his brave nephew Germanicus. After giving the 
power into the hands of an unworthy favorite, he 
20 went to the island of Caprese, and there spent most 
of his evil life. 

Rocky Capreae, with its blue grotto and its 
pretty and gayly dressed peasant girls, is very 
beautiful in its bright setting in the bay of Naples ; 
26 but the ruined villas there must remind us always 
of the miserable reign of Tiberius. 

Caligula, the next Caesar, was so named from 
the little soldier boots which he wore when a small 


245 


boy. He has often been called the madman 
upon the throne ’’ ; and you will think this a good 
name for him when I tell you what he did. He 
made his favorite horse a consul and gave it a 
golden manger ; he fought sometimes as a gladia- 5 
tor ; he called himself a god ; and in order to be 
‘‘next neighbor to Jupiter” he connected his pal- 
ace and Jupiter’s temple by a bridge; and finally 
he wished that all the people in Rome had but one 
neck, that he might cut it off at a single blow ! 10 

In the reign of Claudius there is told a touching 
little story which will make a fine contrasting pic- 
ture to the last. Claudius made conquests in 
Britain, and among the captives whom he brought 
to Rome was a savage of gigantic size called Ca -16 
ractacus. When Caractacus saw the magnificence 
of Rome, he exclaimed, “ How can a people with 
such a splendid city envy Caractacus his humble 
cot in Britain ! ” When he was taken before the 
emperor, he made such a plea for his freedom that 20 
Claudius instantly had his chains struck off. 

Nero, the next, was really the very worst of all 
tne twelve Caesars ; and what seems strange, he 
was so tender-hearted at first that if asked to sign 
a death sentence, he felt so sorry to do it, that he 26 
wished he had never learned to write. He had an 
excellent teacher Seneca, but seldom -a teacher has 
a pupil that turns out so badly. 


246 


Nero’s life was full of crimes, and among those 
nearest to liim whose death he caused were his 
mother and his wife and Seneca. 

^ terrible fire broke out in Rome, and while the 
6 city was in flames, he played on his flute, and sang 
a poem which he had composed on the burning of 
Troy. Soon afterward, as Nero declared the Chris- 
tians had started the fire, a terrible persecution 
followed. They were hunted in the skins of wild 
10 beasts ; they were covered with pitch and lighted to 
serve as torches at night. Is it a wonder that the 
poor Christians sought homes and burial-places in 
the Catacombs dr stone quarries beneath the city ? 

Nero loved to sing with his squeaking voice, to 
16 recite verses, to act in the theater, and to ride in 
chariot-races. No matter how foolish his perform- 
ance, if any one dared make fun of it or to leave 
before he had finished, the life of that person 
would be ended, either by poison or the dagger. 
20 Nero built for himself a golden house, so im- 
mense that it seemed like a small city. Some 
parts of it were overlaid with gold, and some with 
mother-of-pearl. The banqueting hall constantly 
revolved, to imitate the motions of the heavenly 
26 bodies. 

Nero brought beautiful statues from Greece, and 
in one portico was his own, one hundred and twenty 
feet high. When his golden house was finished. 


247 


he exclaimed, “Now I have a dwelling fit for a 
man ! ” Are you surprised that at his death the 
people expressed the wildest joy ? 

The next three Csesars — Galba, Otho, and Vitel- 
lius — are all so weak that we shall not introduce t 
them into our gallery of memory pictures. 

Following these was Vespasian, a stern and hon- 
est man. His reign was prosperous, conquests were 
made in Britain, and among his many public works 
at home he began the stupendous Colosseum, which lo 
held, after completion, eighty thousand people. 

The most important event of his reign was the 
destruction of Jerusalem by his son Titus, in 70 A. d. 
The Romans had treated the Jews and Christians 
as enemies because they would not worship their 15 
emperors and gods. So Titus honestly felt that lie 
was doing the will of the gods when he destroyed 
Jerusalem. The fight was terrible; the Jews fought 
desperately, and it is supposed that over a million 
of them were killed. Titus robbed the temple of 20 
its sacred treasures, taking them to Rome to grace 
his triumph. And to-day we may see pictured, 
inside the Arch of Titus in Rome, reliefs of the 
seven-bianched candlesticks, the trumpets, and the 
table of shew-bread. After Titus returned to 26 
Rome, he ruled with his father Vespasian. 

Vespasian was the first emperor after Augustus 
who did not meet a violent death. In bis last 


248 


moments he begged his attendants to raise him to 
his feet that he might die standing, as befitted a 
Roman emperor. 

Titus was called the “ Delight of Mankind,” and 
she judged that day lost in which he had not done 
some good. It was during his reign in 79^ a.d. 
that the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii were 
destroyed by an eruption of Mount Vesuvius. 

Domitian, the last of the twelve Caesars, was 
10 most foolish. He styled himself “Lord God,” but 
his favorite amusement was spearing flies with a 
pin. 

These twelve Caesars of whom we have read 
began their rule in the first century before Christ, 
16 but all except Julius Caesar belong to the first cen- 
tury after Christ. Their reigns were followed by 
those of the “five good emperors,” who made the 
second century after Christ perhaps even more 
famous than the Caesars made the first. Their 
20 names were : — 

1. Nerva. 4. Antoninus Pius. 

2. Trajan. 6. Marcus Aurelius 

3. Hadrian. Antoninus. 

Nerva was a peaceful and good old man. 

25 Trajan was called “ The Best.” He made new 
conquests in the far East, and during his reign the 
empire reached its greatest extent. He had a 


249 


passion for building, and wherever he went walla 
and roads and bridges appeared. His Forum is 
in Rome, and on it stands his famous column, on 
which is traced in spiral pictured reliefs a most 
lifelike story of his war against the Dacians. 6 
There are about one hundred different scenes, con- 
taining twenty-five hundred figures; and among 
these Trajan is always recognized. 

Hadrian was the next splendid ruler. 

In order to be in all places, like the sunshine, heio 
spent fifteen years visiting every part of his domin- 
ions, building roads and walls, and decorating 
cities with theaters and temples. Hadrian was 
followed in turn by the' two Antonines, whose 
only idea was so to rule as to make the people 16 
happy. But, unfortunately, this “ Golden Age of 
Happiness ” was interrupted many times by the 
movements of the barbarians in the north, of which 
we shall read very soon. But amidst the destruc- 
tion, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus wrote a book of 20 
« Meditations,” more like the teachings of Christ 
than are the writings of any other heathen emperor. 

There are many more Roman emperors whom 
we might add to our gallery, but we must not 
make it too full. Sometime you will study about 26 
them all. Let us now recall our subject, the 
« Twelve Caesars ” and the “ Five Good Emperors,” 
and as these different rulers appear before us, one 


250 


by one, let us see if we remember two or threo 
facts about each of the more prominent ones. 

Pompeii 

Pompeii and Herculaneum were beautiful cities, 
delightfully situated in southern Italy, and, in 
6 the days of the Caesars, were favorite resorts of 
the wealthy Romans. But in 79 a.d., just at the 
height of their prosperity, both were suddenly 
overwhelmed by an eruption of Mount Vesuvius. 
In superstitious times people thought that volcanic 
10 mountains held struggling giants who were trying 
to escape ; for, with the shaking earth, darkening 
sky, flowing lava, blinding cinders, and the explo- 
sion in the air, one might imagine anything. 

Mount Vesuvius had been quiet for many years, 
15 and the inhabitants of Pompeii and Herculaneum, 
though living right at its base, were gay and full 
of affairs, not dreaming what the “ struggling 
giant ” would do. But suddenly, in the year 
79 A.D., there was a shaking as of an earthquake 
20 about the mountain, and soon from its summit 
was seen a cloud of unusual size and shape, some- 
times dark and sometimes bright. It hovered for 
long over the mountain, and at last ashes and 
pumice stone and cinders fell over the two cities, 
26 burying many people in their houses and shops 
and theaters and temples. Of those who tried to 



THE DESTRUCTION OF POMPEII 







252 


escape, some were caught as they ran and over- 
come with the ashes and the choking vapor. The 
alarming suddenness with which the destruction 
came is seen in the terror-stricken attitudes of 
6 some of the bodies, casts of which^are preserved 
in the museum at Naples. 

Pliny the Elder, and his nephew, Pliny the 
Younger, were famous Latin authors living at the 
time. The latter was a celebrated writer of let- 
loters, and in one of them we find vivid accounts of 
the catastrophe, for he himself saw it. In one he 
describes the death of his uncle, Pliny the Elder, 
who was a writer on geography and natural his- 
tory, and who wished to learn all he could about 
16 nature. At this time he was commander of the 
Roman fleet which was stationed at Misenum. 
He felt the earthquake ; he saw the cloud ; he loved 
the marvelous, and determined to have a nearer 
view of the eruption. He entered his galley, and 
20 steered right for the mountain. The pilot urged 
his return, but Pliny said, « Fortune favors the 
brave,” and pushed on. Finally he managed to 
land, but only to be suffocated by the fatal vapor. 
When the eruption was over, quiet was restored ; 
26 but two cities of the Roman Empire had been 
blotted out, and in time fields and villages occupied 
the slopes where they had stood. 

After being forgotten for over sixteen hundred 


25B 


years, Herculaneum was discovered, in 1713, by 
some persons digging a well in Naples. They 
found that the opening led right down into a street 
in Herculaneum, and since then a large part of 
Pompeii has also been dug out. Centuries have 6 
changed other ancient cities ; so how strange it 
seems to go into Pompeii and find it as it was in 
ancient days. Perhaps the houses are more inter- 
esting than anything else ; for, with their courts 
and vestibules and fountains, and altars and shrines 10 
and living rooms, and beautiful mosaic floors and 
bright wall paintings, they recall perfectly the 
Roman villas in the days of Horace and Cicero. 

Pompeii is now only a dark spot upon the bay 
of Naples ; and it is difficult to believe as we walk 16 
through the deserted streets that we are in a 
Roman city which, for many, many years, has 
been protected so carefully by its lava covering ; 
and it seems impossible as we look off into the dis- 
tance upon Mount Vesuvius, holding aloft its smok-20 
ing torch into the blue, sun-lit Italian sky, that the 
monster could have been responsible for the fearful 
tragedy which has made 79 a.d. one of the memo- 
rable dates which history records. 

Constantine the Great 

Between the rule of the good emperors in the sec- 26 
ond century after Christ, and that of Constantine the 


254 


Great in the fourth, there were many rulers. Those 
especially to be remembered for their wickedness 
were Caracalla and Elagabalus. Don’t you think 
that even the name of the latter suggests a monster ? 
5 Among the good rulers were the gentle Alexander 
Severus, the soldier emperor Aurelian, and the stern 
Diocletian. 

Diocletian thought that he could govern the 
empire better by dividing it, and his plan was 
10 followed by Constantine ; but the division helped 
only to weakness. 

•Constantine, before coming to the throne, had 
fought for eighteen years with six competitors; 
but finally he crushed every rival, and became sole 
15 emperor in 324 a.d. 

During the contest with his last opponent, while 
on the field one day a brilliant light appeared in the 
sky, and blazed before the whole army. To Constan- 
tine himself it appeared as a luminous cross, under 
20 which were written the words, ‘‘In hoc signo 
vinces.” (With this sign you will conquer.) 

Constantine at once embraced Christianity, a 
royal standard was made, surmounted by a cross, 
and beneath this his legions marched to conquest. 

25 Then they entered Rome in triumph, and were 
welcomed there by the Christians, and from this 
time Sunday was kept as the Lord’s day. 

When Constantine became a Christian, his 


255 


mother, Helena, was much distressed ; but later 
she, too, was converted, and did much to 
strengthen the early church. She went to Bethle- 
hem and Jerusalem to discover the sacred places 
connected with Christ’s life, and about the spot in 6 
Bethlehem where it was supposed he was born, she 
built the Church of the Nativity. 

Constantine could not easily introduce the Chris- 
tian religion into Rome ; for the city was full of 
heathen temples, and the Romans did not like to lo 
have him abandon the gods. 

So he determined to build for himself a new 
capital. It was to be in the East, nearer the coun- 
tries from which the earlier civilizations had come. 

It is said that a celestial messenger told him to 15 
found his new city at Byzantium, on the straits of 
Bosporus. 

Constantine now had the wealth of the world at 
his command, and it was not long before he began 
the great church of Santa Sophia. 20 

He also built for himself a palace, and embel- 
lished the city with parks and theaters and dwell 
ings. The name was changed from Byzantium to 
Constantinople, meaning the “ City of Constantine,” 
and we know how magnificent it has become. 25 
When Constantine was sixty-four years old, and 
during his last illness, he was baptized, and he 
never afterwards put on his royal purple robes, 


256 


but wore white until the day of his death in 
337 A.D. 


Alaric — Attila — Genseric 

We have now reached the fifth century after 
Christ, and it is a very famous age. First, it is the 
6 century when the most terrible of all barbarians 
^ — the Goths, the Huns, and the Vandals — over- 
whelmed the Roman Empire. Second, it is the 
century of the fall of the empire, which took place 
476 A.D. Third, it is the century of the begin- 
lOnings of the history of England, France, Germany, 
and Spain. Fourth, it is the century when ancient 
history ends and mediaeval history begins. Medi- 
aeval history extends from the fifth to the fifteenth 
century after Christ, and as we read about it in the 
16 following chapters, we shall soon discover the dif- 
ference between ancient and mediaeval life. 

Of the barbarian leaders, Alaric the Goth came 
first. At this time Honorius was on the throne 
of the western Roman Empire, for after the death 
goof Constantine the Great, the empire had been 
divided into two parts, one emperor reigning 
Constantinople, and the other at Rome. 

Honorius was a weak, foolish emperor. You 
will hardly believe it when I tell you that he 
26 really cared more for his chickens than for the 
empire over which he was supposed to rule. To 


267 


prove this, the story is told that when the Goths 
were invading his country, and he was hiding in 
Ravenna, some one told him that Rome was lost, 
and he replied, “That is not possible, for I have 
just fed her ! ” You see that he had a favorite b | 
chicken named Rome. 

Honorius, however, had a great general, Stilicho, 
who fought the Goths. In honor of his victory 
over them, Honorius had a triumph, but later grew 
so jealous of Stilicho that he had him assassinated, lo 
The Goths, knowing then that there was no one 
able to oppose them, marched under their leader, 
Alaric, to the very gates of Rome, and cutting off 
the inhabitants from communication with the 
country around, they quietly waited until the city 16 
should be starved. 

Famine and pestilence both came in time, and 
an immense ransom was raised to pay Alaric to 
leave. Quantities of gold and silver and silk robes 
and scarlet cloth and pepper were collected. 20 

Pepper seemed a curious thing to be demanded, 
but it was used very much in Roman cooking and 
considered a luxury, for it was brought from far- 
away India. After receiving the ransom, Alaric 
and his Goths left, but they soon returned. 25 
This time they marched into the city, and the 
blasts of their trumpetr resounded through the 
streets. 


0 


258 


Rome was given up to days of plunder. Houses 
were set on fire to give light in the streets, and the 
city was filled with heaps of ruins. Jewels and 
gold and silver and robes and vases and furniture 
Sand statues of tlie gods, indeed innumerable art 
treasures which have been mourned ever since by 
lovers of the beautiful, were heaped high upon the 
wagons of the barbarians. 

Alaric was satisfied, and determined to m.ove 
10 into southern Italy. 

As the Goths traveled southward, they lived on 
the rich products of the country, resting under the 
palm trees in the heat of the day, eating the fruits, 
and drinking the native wines from gold and 
16 jeweled goblets. 

Not long afterwards, 410 a.d., Alaric died of a 
fever. A little stream was turned aside from its 
course, and clad in full armor, he was buried in its 
bed. Then the stream was turned back again. 
20 The workmen who had dug the grave were killed, 
so that no one could ever find the exact buriah 
place of the great leader. 

The savage Huns were the “ terrible race ” that 
had pushed other barbarians into the Roman 
26 Empire ; and they had not only come behind them, 
but they also had pressed between them. They 
were ugly, small, thick-set people of a tawny 
color, and with huge heads and sunken eyes. 


259 


Their greatest* pride was to be hideous in ap- 
pearance. They cut the faces of their children 
that they might be scarred, and bound their noses 
that they might be flat. They were a wandering 
people, planting no seeds and reaping r^o harvests. 6 
They carried ponderous lances, scythes, and short 
swords, and they lived on horseback, never dis- 
mounting even to treat with an enemy. 

They followed with implicit obedience their 
leader Attila, the Scourge of God,” a pompous, lO 
fiery man. His camp was inclosed by tree trunks. 

A sword fastened on the end of a pole was alike 
his standard and his idol. 

His proud boast was that his generals were 
emperors ; that at his approach the earth would 15 
tremble and the stars fall ; and that grass ceased 
to grow where his horse had trod. 

Attila set forth from his wooden palace in the 
wilds of Hungary with perhaps half a million 
savage followers. He thirsted for blood and 20 
plunder, and vowed not to stop until he had 
reached the sea. Never before had such an army 
crossed Europe ! 

Attila first defeated the army of the emperor of 
Constantinople, and then marched directly to Gaul. 25 
This he would subdue, and then carrying fire and 
sword into Italy, put an end to the Roman Empire. 
The other barbarians so hated the Huns that they 


260 


joined with the Romans to defeat them. The 
enemies met on the plains of Chalons in Gaul, in 
451 A.D., and the battle fought there was one of 
the most gigantic in the history of the world. 

6 It was a contest between Asia and Europe, be- 
tween Attila the Hun and Aetius, Rome’s finest 
general. 

After a long and terrible fight, Aetius won, and 
Attila lost anywhere from one to three hundred 
10 thousand men. • Legends still haunt the plains of 
Chalons ; and one of them describes how every year 
on the anniversary of the battle night the ghosts of 
Germans and Huns rise from their graves and fight 
in the clouds, while, as Kingsley says, “the country 
15 far and wide trembles at their ghostly hurrah.” 

After his defeat at Chalons, Attila crossed the 
Alps, and burning with revenge, marched down 
into Italy. 

Think of the savage Huns in that beautiful land ! 
20 City after city was destroyed in the North. Some 
people fleeing sought refuge on the lonely islands 
of the Adriatic, the haunts of sea-birds and fisher- 
men, and out of this little beginning rose fascinat- 
ing Venice. 

26 When Attila reached Rome, Leo, the Pope, in 
full pontifical robes, went out at the head of a 
procession of clergy to meet the great Hun. Leo 
threatened him with the wrath of Heaven, if he 


261 


dared attack the city, and he and his fierce horde 
actually bowed before the simple power of the 
church. He simply turned away and left Italy, 
retreating with his barbarians to the wilds of Hun- • 
gary. Later, when he burst a blood vessel and t , 
died, his rude warriors tore their cheeks with their 
daggers, saying that for Attila, they must weep 
tears of blood. His body, like Alaric’s, was buried 
secretly, and, like Alaric, the only mark that he 
left on history was the “ruin which he hadio 
wroug ht.^^ { 

But Rome had been saved from Attila only to 
be attacked by a new enemy that came to her 
from the South. 

Genseric, ruler of the Vandals in northern Africa, 16 
had obtained great power over the Mediterranean 
Sea, and his pirates menaced both Sicily and Italy. 

He was invited by the Roman empress, Eudoxia, to 
come and avenge the murder of her husband, and 
his Vandals, whose greed for plunder was terrible, 20 
gladly accepted. 

Pope Leo went forth again and entreated for the 
city, but the Vandals had not for the church the 
same awe which had been expressed by the Huns. 
.Genseric promised to spare the lives of the people, 25 
but the plunder he must have, and during fourteen 
days Rome was given over to its destruction by 
the merciless Vandals, 


$ 



VANi>ALa IN EOUS 


263 


When they were satisfied, they sailed away, bear- 
ing thirty thousand slaves. Their ships, like the 
wagons of Alaric, were piled high with costly 
spoils, the trophies of many victories. The kind 
of ruin that Genseric wrought has ever since been 6 
called “Vandalism.” 

Goths, Huns, and Vandals had done their worst 
work, and the story of the Roman Empire is about 
ended — for how could it longer survive such terri- 
ble shocks ? 10 

The last of the emperors, Romulus Augustulus, 
was but a boy, and very curiously his name com- 
bines the names of the first king and the first em- 
peror. After ruling for a year, he was dethroned 
by Odoacer, leader of the Heruli, a small German 16 
tribe. Odoacer, in seizing the throne, did not dare 
to call himself king. So he sent the crown and 
scepter and vestments to Zeno, the Eastern emperor 
at Constantinople, asking him to receive Italy as a 
province of his dominion, and saying that he would 20 
rule it for him as his viceroy. The request was 
granted, and Italy became a province of the Eastern 
Empire. 

Egypt, Assyria, Persia, Greece, Macedon, and 
Rome had all, in turn, ruled the world ; and now 25 
with the fall of Rome, 476 A.P., ancient history is 
ended. 


264 


" The Goth, the Christian, time, war, flood, and fire, 
Have dealt upon the seven-hilled city’s pride. 

She saw her glories star by star expire. 

And up the steep barbarian monarchs ride. 

5 Where the car climbed the Capitol, far and wide 
Temple and tower went down, nor left a site. 

Chaos of ruins ! who shall trace the void. 

O’er the dim fragments cast a lunar light. 

And say, ^ Here was, or is,’ where all is doubly night.’^ 

— Byron. 


PART II. MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

The Nibelungenlied 

Theke are but very few great epic poems in the 
world, and every nation would be glad to claim 
one. The Germans are as proud of the “Nibel- 
ungenlied,” telling of the deeds of their legendary 
heroes, as are the Romans of the “ -^neid,” or the 6 
Greeks of their “ Iliad ” and “ Odyssey.” 

The “Nibelungenlied,” or “Lays of the Nibel- 
ungen,” is made up of many myths, all referring 
to a hoarded treasure that belonged to the Nibel- 
ungens. The stories were told from one genera- lo 
tion to another, until probably in the eleventh or 
twelfth century, some writers arranged them into 
a poem, giving to them new impulse and beauty. 

The scenes are laid principally in Worms, Ice- 
land, and Hungary. The exploits of the hero, Sieg- 15 
fried, made him as famous as the brave Achilles in 
the “Iliad.” 

The story opens in the city of Worms in Ger- 
many. Here Gunther, the king of Burgundy, lived 
with his gentle and lovely sister, Kriemhild. 20 

One night Kriemhild had a sad dream that a 
falcon which she had reared had been caught and 
265 


266 


^'uelly torn to pieces by two fierce eagles. The 
dream distressed her, for her mother told her that 
probably it referred to a noble lover she should 
have who would be killed by murderers. 

6 Far away in the North lived a king whose great- 
est pride was his son, Siegfried. 

Siegfried had done such deeds of valor that all 
the world had heard of liis fame. He had once 
been in the Nibelungenland, and he had slain the 
10 dragon which guarded the hoarded treasure and 
carried it away. Among other things which he had 
found in the treasure was a “ Tarnkappe,” or magic 
cloud cap, which made him invisible. He had 
bathed in the dragon’s blood, and this had made 
16 him invulnerable except in one spot between the 
shoulders, where a linden leaf had stuck while he 
was bathing. 

When Siegfried was of age, his father made a 
tournament for him, inviting warriors from every 
20 land to take part, and Siegfried won laurels over 
every knight with whom he tilted. He had heard 
rumors of the beauty of Kriemhild of Worms, 
and begged his father to allow him to visit the 
maiden, but his father was afraid for his son, and 
25 urged him not to go. But when the old king 
found that Siegfried was determined on the ven- 
ture, he gave him twelve companions to accompany 
him, and fitted them out with costly vestments for 


267 


themselves, and with rich trappings for their steeds. 
They rode for seven days, and on their arrival at 
Worms were received graciously by King Gunther. 

The gallant little band remained for a long 
time, and in all knightly contests Siegfried showed 5 
great skill. But he could never catch even a 
glimpse of the fair Kriemhild, though she often 
gazed at him with admiration from behind her 
lattice. 

In a war with the king of Denmark, Siegfried li? 
fought for Gunther, and after winning the battle, 
he returned triumphantly with his warriors to 
Worms. And now in the festivities in his honor, 
Kriemhild was permitted to take part. Siegfried 
spake words of love to her, and the celebrationis 
was “ one long dream of bliss to the happy 
lovers.” 

While Siegfried was in Worms, tidings came of 
the beauty and great strength of Brunhild, queen 
of Iceland, and Gunther determined to go and woo 20 
her; but this would be difficult, for Brunhild had 
resolved that the man whom she should marry 
must surpass her in casting a spear, in throwing 
a stone, and in jumping, and if he should fail to 
do these things, he must die. 26 

Siegfried promised to go with Gunther and help 
him, if, on their return, Gunther would give him 
his sister Kriemhild for his wife. Gunther prom- 


268 


ised, and they embarked with their knights in a 
small ship. 

When they arrived at Iceland, they were sur- 
prised at the splendor of the palace and court, but 
6 most of all with Brunhild’s grace and strength 
Just think ! it took four warriors to bear her shield, 
three to carry her spear, and twelve could hardly 
roll the stone which she was to cast. Gunther 
was frightened ; but Siegfried told him to take 
JO courage, for he would help him to win. He said 
that in the test Gunther must make the gestures, 
and that he would do the work. 

The time for the contest arrived, and Siegfried 
put on his Tarnkappe, and was invisible. Brunhild 
15 first threw the spear, and Siegfried caught it and 
tossed it back with such force that she was out- 
done. She next fiung the stone and leaped after it, 
but Siegfried stopped its flight. Then, grasping 
Gunther, he, leaped with him through the air, and 
20 landed with him quite out of the reach of 
Brunhild. 

So you see that Brunhild was conquered. She 
married Gunther, and when they returned to 
Worms there was a double celebration, for both 
2 ft Siegfried and Kriemhild were invited. 

But almost as soon as the wedding was over, 
Brunhild treated her husband so badly that Sieg- 
fried, again putting on his Tarnkappe, wrestled 


269 


with her until he had taken away her great 
strength, so that never again could she show her 
mastery over any one. 

Siegfried now took his wife home, and his father 
received him joyfully and gave up his throne to 5 
him. After Siegfried and Kricmhild had lived to- 
gether very happily for ten years, they were asked 
to visit Gunther and Brunhild in Worms. They 
were received in great state, but soon the two 
queens began to quarrel ; and Brunhild threatened 10 
Kriemhild in such a way that she feared for the 
life of her devoted husband, Siegfried. She felt 
that he must be guarded when he went to war or 
the chase, and so she begged Hagen, the henchman, 
to protect him. She told Hagen that Siegfried 15 
was invulnerable except in one spot between the 
shoulders, and she was afraid that he might be 
wounded there. 

Hagen promised Kriemhild to shield her hus- 
band ; and that he might better do it, he asked her 20 
to sew upon his doublet over the place that should 
be guarded a little red cross. Kriemhild did this. 
But on a certain day when Siegfried went out to 
the hunt, she did not know why, but she bade him 
farewell with sad forebodings. Siegfried killed 25 
some boars and captured a bear alive, and he 
brought it to furnish sport for the guests while the 
meal was preparing. Then, being very thirsty, he 


270 


stooped for a drink at the spring. Wicked Hagen, 
who had been told by Brunhild to do the deed, and 
who knew where to strike, ran him through with a 
spear. After the murder the body was borne back 
6 through the forest to Worms. 

Kriemhild spent her days and nights in weeping, 
and for long years lived in a little house near the 
cathedral so that daily she might visit Siegfried’s 
tomb. As she mourned longer and longer, her 
10 sweet, gentle spirit was giving place gradually to 
bitter revenge. 

' Hagen had gloried in his deed, and closely 
watched her, and as the time passed he grew more 
and more afraid of her. The Niebelungen treas- 
l5ure was hers, and Hagen was afraid that by dis- 
^tributing it to the poor, as she was doing, she 
would win so many friends that Gunther’s king- 
dom would be overturned. So, with Gunther’s 
assistance, he managed to steal the treasure, and 
20 sunk it in the Rhine. 

After thirteen years had passed. King Attila, or 
Etzel, of Hungary, having lost his wife, sent mes- 
sengers asking the hand of Kriemhild in marriage ; 
and she, burning for revenge, gladly accepted him. 
25 She went to Hungary, and the wedding festivities 
took place with great pomp. After a little, she 
begged her husband to invite Gunther and his 
Burgundian nobles to visit them at Buda. 



XSS BODY OF aiEGFBIED BROUGHT BACK TO WORMg» 









272 


When the invitation was received, Hagen objected 
to going, for he said, “This jaunt’s a jaunt to 
death ! ” 

Gunther, however, insisted, as only. Hagen under- 
6 stood the route that they must take. They arrived 
at Buda, and King Etzel, entirely ignorant of 
Kriemhild’s evil designs, treated the guests with 
great hospitality. As soon as Kriemhild saw them^ 
she hurried her plans for their execution. First, 
10 she set fire to the banqueting hall, and the Bur- 
gundians fought their way out, but they were taken 
prisoners. Then she ordered Gunther’s head to be 
cut off, and she herself kdled Hagen with Sieg- 
fried’s sword. Then the old warrior, Hildebrand, 
15 amazed at her cruelty, killed her. Through all, 
the aged Etzel sat watching the horrid massacre of 
his Burgundian guests. 

This is but the simplest outline of the story of 
the “ Nibelungenlied ” ; but in this we can feel the 
20 intense passion which increases tp the very end. 
It is filled with such bold characters, — the dark 
browed Amazonian Brunhild, the wicked Hagen, 
the weak-spirited Gunther, the knightly Siegfried, 
and the beautiful Kriemhild, the constancy of whose 
25 love developed into such vengeance. There is a 
great variety of fanciful myths belonging to the 
“ Nibelungenlied,” all of which give us a glimpse of 
the barbarous age to which it belongs. 


273 


Wagner, the famous German composer of the 
nineteenth century, has, in his music drama, “ The 
Ring of the Niebelungen,” given new interest to 
the epic ; for his wondrous tones and harmonies 
have d'eveloped the passion and the strength of the 6, 
old Nibelungen Lays. 


Clovis 

The Franks, or Freemen, were among the most 
powerful tribes that had marched into this Roman 
Empire ; and they had taken possession of a part 
of Gaul. In their honor, the name of the country lo 
was changed from Gaul to France. It was in the year 
481 A.D., not long after the battle of Chalons, that 
a young chief, Clovis, only fifteen years old, became 
king of the Franks. He was a pagan, — gay, fierce, 
and ambitious, — and he determined to subdue the 16 
tribes about him, and to make for himself a king- 
dom. He first conquered the last Roman governor 
of Gaul, and took possession of his capital, Soissons, 
and then he wished to subdue the Visigoths and 
Burgundians. He had heard that the king of 20 
Burgundy had a niece named Clothild ; if she were 
only beautiful, he would marry her and then make 
war on her uncle. So he gave a ring to Aurelian, 
one of his courtiers, begging him to go in disguise 
to Geneva, and there to seek Clothild, and if he 26 

X 


274 


admired her to give her the ring, asking her own 
in exchange. Aurelian went, disguised as a beggar, 
and wlien lie knocked at Cloth ild’s door, she invited 
him to enter, and washed his travel-stained feet. 

6 She was very beautiful, and he managed to whis- 
per in her ear the message of Clovis. Clothild 
was delighted, and at once sent her ring to Cfovis, 
telling him that if he wished her, he must at once 
carry her away. So Clovis married Clothild, and 
10 soon made war on her uncle, and conquered his 
province of Burgundy. Then, not wishing to see 
the Visigoths in possession of the fairest parts of 
France, he conquered them also. 

The following story shows how rude the govern- 
I5ment was at this time and how little power the 
king had over his chiefs. Clovis took the city of 
Rheims, and when the spoils were brought him 
from the cathedral, the bishop begged that just one 
beautiful chalice might be spared for the service 
20 of the altar. It was the custom that everything 
sliould be divided by lot. Clovis turned to his 
cliiefs and begged them that before the division was 
made they should let the good bishop have the cup. 
All but one agreed to this. He brought down his 
25 ax upon the cup and shattered it, exclaiming, “I 
do not consent ; all shall share alike.” 

The man had simply expressed his right of 
decision. Clovis said nothing at the time, but a 


275 


year later he held a grand review, at which all his 
soldiers were to present their arms in perfect order. 
The man appeared with a soiled and rusty battle 
ax. Clovis looked at it and then threw it down, 
and, as the man stooped to pick it up, Clovis raised 6 
his own ax and killed him, saying, “ Thus didst 
thou cleave the vase at Rheims ! ” , 

Clothild, the pious wife of Clovis, was a Chris- 
tian, and she constantly tried to convert her hus- 
band. A tribe of Allemanni invaded the dominions lO 
of Clovis. He marched against them and was 
losing in the battle, when one of his chiefs ex- 
claimed, “ My lord, there is no hope for us now but 
in the God of Queen Clothild.” Clovis is said to 
have fallen at once upon his knees, and looking 15 
into heaven to have prayed: “ Christ Jesus, whom 
Clothild believes in, I have called on my gods, and 
they have withdrawn from me. Help Thou me ! ” 
And then the battle turned, and Clovis gained 
the victory. He went to Rheims, where prepara- 20 
tions were made for his baptism. On the road 
from the palace to the baptistery, the houses were 
hung with stufPs and banners ; and the baptistery 
was sprinkled with perfume. In the procession the 
clergy led the way, carrying the Gospels and the 25 
cross ; the bishop followed, leading Clovis by 
the hand ; and then came Clothild, the chiefs, and 
the people, and all sang hymns as they marched. 


276 


As they went, Clovis turned to the bishop and 
asked if that was the kingdom of heaven to which 
they were leading him, and the bishop replied, 
« No : but it is the beginning of the road to it.” 

6 When the bishop was baptizing Clovis, he said 
to the king, as he knelt, “ Burn tliat which thou 
oast worshiped, and worship that which thou 
uast burned ! ” 

It is said that in order to render his body espe- 
10 cially sacred, Clovis was anointed from a phial sent 
from heaven for his baptism. It is still preserved 
as a sacred relic in Rheims, and the oil from it has 
been used at the coronation of all the French kings 
even to the time of the French Revolution. 

15 On the day when Clovis was baptized, the same 
rite was administered to three thousand of his 
Frankish followers, men, women, and children. 

Clovis was now hailed as ‘‘ the most Christian 
king ” ; and he received from the emperor of Con- 
20 stantinople as a token of his approval the golden 
crown and purple robe of a consul. 

Clovis was the first of the Merovingian line of 
kings. Before his death, his kingdom of France 
was bounded by the Rhine and Rhone rivers, the 
25 Pyrenees Mountains, and the Atlantic Ocean. He 
had taken from a Celtic tribe, the Parisii, a town 
of mud huts plastered with clay and thatched with 
straw, and he made this his capital. What a 


277 


change the centuries have brought, for now it is 
gay and beautiful Paris ! 

Clovis died at Paris in 511 A.D., leaving his 
Frankish kingdom to be divided among his four 
sons. 6 


Augustine 

We have read the story of Constantine and the 
luminous cross ; of Attila, humbling himself before 
Pope Leo ; and of Clovis, kneeling to the God of 
his Christian wife, Clothild. 

Now we are to read the simple, quiet story, tell- 10 
ing how Christianity was carried to Britain, and 
this was the way it happened. It was in the year 
596 A.D. when the pious Bishop Gregory, walking 
one day through the slave markets of Rome, was 
attracted by a strange sight. It was a group of 15 
slaves with fair faces, beautiful hair, and splendid 
forms. Stopping to ask where they were bought, 
he was told that they were Angles. “ It is good,” 
he said, « for they have angel faces, and it becomes 
such to be coheirs with the angels in heaven.” 20 

Inquiring more about them, he grew so inter- 
ested that he would have liked to become a mis- 
sionary, and to carry the Gospel to their country; 
but as he could not go himself, he sent Augustine, 
the prior of his monastery, with forty other monks, 26 
as missionaries to Britain 


278 


They set out, each carrying his Gospel and scrip 
and staff and water-bottle. They went by water 
to southern Gaul, and started northward through 
that country to go to Britain. At that time this 
6 country was in great disorder. So the monks, 
coming from their quiet cloister life, were seized 
with dread at what was before them. They 
begged Augustine to go back to Rome to ask Pope 
Gregory to allow them to return. 

10 Augustine did as they wished, but only to be re- 
buked by the Pope. Gregory knew that the jour- 
ney was weary, and that there were dangers ; but 
he told Augustine that he must have Christian cour- 
age, and persevere. Thus Gregory reasoned with 
15 him, and Augustine promised to start once more on 
his mission. Before his going, however, Gregory 
made him an abbot, and sent a message to the 
monks who had been left in Gaul, telling them that 
they must follow their leader obediently. Then 
20 Augustine and his little band went bravely forward 
until they reached Kent in southern Britain. 

At this time, Britain was divided into seven 
provinces called the Heptarchy, each with its own 
king. Ethelbert was the king of Kent, and he 
25 held his court at Canterbury, and here it was 
that Augustine and his monks appeared, Ethelbert 
promised to receive them. He insisted, however, 
that the gathering should be in the open air ; for 


279 


if there was anything magical in the religion which 
the strangers had brought, it would injure his 
people less than under cover. 

On the appointed day, King Ethelbert and his 
good Queen Bertha, their councilors and armed 
attendants, seated themselves beneath an ancient 
oak, which ever after was called “ Augustine’s 
oak.” Probably they were surrounded by a throng 
of curious people, men, women, and children. 

How eagerly all must have gazed when they 
saw coming toward them a procession of brown- 
robed monks ! They carried a silver cross, and a 
banner bearing a picture of the Savior, and as 
they marched they chanted a litany for the salva- 
tion of Ethelbert and his kingdom. As they 
reached the royal assembly, Augustine came for- 
ward, and through an interpreter, told the stoiy 
of the Babe of Bethlehem and of the message 
which it brought. 

Can we not imagine the solemnity of the scene, 
and the earnestness with which all listened ? 

Ethelbert gave the monks permission to remain 
in Canterbury, and there they lived their convent 
lives of fasting, prayer, and preaching. People 
flocked in great numbers to hear the stirring words 
of Augustine, the Apostle of Kent.” A little 
later Ethelbert was baptized, and one thousand of 
his followers also became converts, 


5 

10 

15 

20 

25 


280 


The Saxons were first called Christians in Can- 
terbury, and the town and its cathedral became 
the center of the religious life of England. 

Augustine gave the rest of his life to preaching^ 
6 building churches, and founding a monastery, and 
he died in 605 a.d. 

Later on, some of the monks carried the same 
message to Northumbria, another province of the 
Heptarchy, and the king called a council of his 
10 wise men and asked them whether it would be 
better to accept the new faith. 

One of the aged councilors rose and said, « 0 
king, man’s life is like a bird, that driven by the 
storm flees from the darkness without, and flying 
15 in at the open door flits for a few moments in the 
warmth and light of the dwelling where the fire 
is glowing, and then hastily darts out again into 
the cold and darkness. Whence it comes, whither 
it goes, no man can tell. Such is the life of man. 
20 If these strangers can tell us this mystery, let us 
heartily welcome them and listen to the tidings 
that they bring.” 

And they did listen, and accepted the good tid- 
ings as had the people of Kent, and then from 
25 Kent and Northumbria, Christianity was soon car- 
ried all over Britain. An obelisk now marks the 
spot where « Augustine’s oak ” stood. 


281 


Mohammed 

We have read about Confucius in China and 
Buddha in India, of the gods of Greece and Rome, 
and of the spread of Christianity. Now we come 
to the most warlike religion of all, one that has 
forced its way by fire and sword. It is called 
Mohammedanism, because first preached by the 
prophet Mohammed who lived in Arabia. 

Rocky, desert Arabia ! we hear little about it 
in history except when Mohammed lived there. 
Where is Arabia ? Can you bound it and locate 
its principal cities ? 

In very early times the Arabians worshiped 
idols and the stars, and a certain black stone, 
fabled to have been brought by an angel from 
heaven and given to Abraham. To guard this he 
is said to have built over it a temple called the 
Caaba, and this became the sacred shrine of Arabia. 
Pilgrims came from far and near to worship, and 
around the shrine grew up the holy city of Mecca. 

In the year 569, a little boy was born in Mecca, 
and he was named Mohammed, which means « The 
Praised.” His family belonged to the tribe which 
always guarded the Caaba. Their property con- 
sisted of five camels, a flock of goats, and one slave. 
You see that the Arabs did not count their wealth 
in land and money as we do ours. 


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20 

25 


282 


Mohammed lost his mother when he was very 
young, but his grandfather cared for him. When 
he was thirteen years old, he used sometimes to 
visit with his uncle the bazaars in Damascus. 

6 While traveling with the caravans lie met Jews 
and Christians who told him that they had turned 
away from idols to worship the true God, and the 
boy was greatly interested. 

Mohammed must have been a child of winning 
10 speech and pleasing manner, and of quiet and affec- 
tionate disposition, but there was always some- 
thing unusual about him, for his mind seemed 
disordered and he had fits and strange dreams. 
When quite young he tended sheep, and when he 
16 was grown, he became a camel-driver. 

At the age of twenty-five, a great joy came to 
him. A wealthy widow named Khadijali asked 
him to take charge of the sale of her goods, and 
for her he made journeys to Syria and Palestine. 
20 She so much liked the way in which he did her 
business that instead of giving him two camels, 
which was the ordinary pay for such service, she 
gave him four; and she grew so fond of Moham- 
med that she married him. He was only twenty* 
25 five and she was forty, but Mohammed was much 
delighted with his wife, and they were always very 
• happy together. There was plenty of money, and 
they had a good home, and for a time lived quietly 
in Mecca. 


283 


As Mohammed grew older, his habits of medita- 
tion increased more and more. He would retire 
very often to a hill three miles from Mecca, and 
sometimes he would be gone for days and nights. 
Once on returning home, he declared that the 5 
angel Gabriel had appeared to him in a vision, • 
telling him that he was to go forth and preach 
to men that there was but one God, and that Mo- 
hammed was His apostle. 

Khadijah was his first convert, and for someio 
time only a few others accepted his story ; but it 
is proof that he was honest in his belief, for those 
who knew him best were the first to become his 
followers. 

He publicly gave up idol worship, and tried to 15 
make the people do the same ; but when he pro- 
claimed himself a prophet, there arose at once in 
Mecca fierce persecution against him, and the peo- 
ple even plotted to kill him. His life was saved 
by his faithful follower Ali, who, changing clothes 20 
with his master, lay down on his couch while 
Mohammed was conducted by another faithful 
friend out of the city to a cave. 

Tradition tells us that while they were in hiding 
here, a spider spun its web across the entrance, 25 
and a tree sprang up in front of the cave in which 
some doves built their nests. When Mohammed’s 
[)ersecutors passed and saw the web and the tree 


284 


and the nest, they did not stop, for they felt sure 
that no one could be hidden within. As soon as 
it was safe, Mohammed left the cave and went to 
Medina, and there, to his great surprise, was re- 
sceived as a messenger from heaven. The date of 
. this « Flight,” or « Hegira ” as it is called, was 622, 
and from it the Mohammedans reckon time. 

Mohammed was delighted with his gracious re- 
ception at Medina, and resolved at once to spread 
10 his faith in every direction, taking for his battle- 
cry, “ There is no god but God, and Mohammed is 
His prophet.” And what was the religion which 
he preached as his army marched forth to conquer 
not only Arabia, but all the world ? It was called 
15 Islam, and he had received it through the angel 
Gabriel directly from heaven. The creed was very 
simple. His followers were to worship the one 
true God ; to pray five times a day, always looking 
toward Mecca ; to give every year one hundredth 
20 part of all their property to the poor; and to keep 
the fast at Ramadan. This fast lasted one month of 
every year. During this time they were not allowed 
to eat during the day, but could feast all night*. 
Finally, all Mohammedans were obliged at least 
25 once in their lifetime to make a pilgrimage to Mecca. 

When prisoners were taken, they were required 
either to desert the faith, to pay tribute, or to per- 
ish by fire or sword. 





A- 



Mohammed’s entry into Medina 



286 


Mosques were built for preaching. Instead of 
the bell or trumpet, the human voice must give 
the call to prayer ; and from the slender tower or 
minaret, from Mohammed’s time until to-day, the 
6 deep tones of the muezzin float through the air. 

Whatever the believer is doing, whether eating, 
selling, or driving his camel, he stops all and falls 
on his knees and prays. 

Among other things that were forbidden were 
10 stealing, gambling, and wine-drinking; the women 
could not go without veils before any one except 
their nearest friends, and no one could neglect the 
payment of a- regular tribute. 

Idolatry was destroyed so completely that a 
15 Mohammedan was never to make a bust or statue 
of any kind. 

The Koran was the Bible of Mohammedj and he 
called it the very word of God, coming to him by 
the angel Gabriel. From time to time he recited 
20 portions of it to his disciples. They wrote these 
down on bits of pottery, the bleached shoulder 
bones of sheep, and sticks of wood. These 
fragments were preserved carefully, and after 
Mohammed’s death, they were collected as the 
25 Koran. The longest chapter is the first, and the 
shortest is the last. 

The Koran describes a heaven full of delight for 
faithful warriors, and a place of terrible suffering 


287 


for those who sin. In the book there are many 
beautiful passages, and it made the beginning of 
Arabian literature, wliich was the most famous one 
in the Middle Ages. The Koran is the principal 
book taught in Mohammedan schools, and the 
pupils never touch it without kissing it and carry- 
ing it to their foreheads in token of reverence. 
Often they learn it by heart; the most faithful 
Mohammedans copy it several times during their 
lives, and sometimes they own copies ornamented 
with gold and precious stones. 

So much for the belief and power of Mohammed. 
Let us now hear more of the man himself. We 
left him in Medina, increasing his army of devoted 
followers. But he longed to return to Mecca, to 
him the most lovable and choicest portion of the 
earth,” and after six years he returned with fifteen 
hundred followers. When they reached the city 
they shouted, “Here we are, 0 Lord,” and when 
finally they were allowed to enter, they cleansed 
tlie Caaba of idols, standing about it, and as each 
one fell, Mohammed shouted, “ Truth is come and 
falsehood is vanished away.” 

Then Mohammed carried on his conquering ex- 
pedition until he was master of all Arabia. He 
lived until he was sixty-three, long enough to start 
his followers on their career of conquest. On his 
death-bed he gave solemn order that his religion 


5 

10 

15 

20 

25 


288 


should be carried with fire and sword all over the 
earth. His last words were, «« Yes, I come among 
my companions on high.” He died at Medina, in 
652 A.D., in the arms of his child wife, Ayesha, who 

6 had been his friend since the death of Khadijah. 

They laid Mohammed to rest in the mosque at 
Medina. The tomb is concealed by a curtain of 
silk, and no Christian has been permitted to look 
upon it. 

10 Now there are two' holy places in Arabia: the 
Caaba at Mecca and the tomb of Mohammed at 
Medina ; and thither every year, at the holy season, 
throngs of Mohammedan pilgrims may be seen 
coming to pray. 

15 To-day nearly one sixth of the inhabitants of the 
world are Mohammedans. 

What a power the valiant warrior-leader must 
have possessed; and how faithfully his followers 
have obeyed his precepts given nearly thirteen 

20 hundred years ago ! For to the East and the West, 
to the North and the South, with fire and sword, 
they have carried the faith, urged on by their war- 
cry, “ There is no god but God, and Mohammed is 
His prophet.” 

THE muezzin’s CALL TO PRAYER 

25 « God is great ! God is great ! 

I witness that there is no god but God 1 


289 


I witness that there is no god but God ! 

I witness that Mohammed is the apostle of God I 
I witness that Mohammed is the apostle of God ! 
Come to prayer ! come to prayer 1 come to salva- 
tion ! come to salvation ! 6 

Prayer is better than sleep I 
Prayer is better than sleep ! n 

God is great ! God is great I 
There is no god but God I ” 

EXTRACTS FROM THE KORAN 

« Be ye then steadfast in prayer and give alms, lO 
and hold fast by God : He is your sovereign, and 
an excellent sovereign, and an excellent help.” 

“And give full measure when ye measure out, 
and weigh with a right balance.” 

Charles Martel 

Have you ever heard of Charles Martel, the 15 
“ Defender of Christianity,” who, with his battle- 
ax, aimed such tremendous blows against the Sara- 
cens that he is said to have “ hammered ” them , 
out of France ? The one bold deed which gave him 
the surname of “Martel” (the hammer) makes one of 20 
the best-known and most thrilling stories in history. 

At this time the court officials, called mayors of 
the palace, had gained their power through the 
weakness of the Merovingian kings of France, 
u 


290 . 


After Clovis, with one or two exceptions, these 
kings were only sluggards, and accomplished noth- 
ing for the kingdom. They wore long, flowing 
hair and beards, and shaved themselves only once a 
5 year. At the annual assembly of tlie Franks they \ 
were put into a cart drawn by oxen and taken to 
the place of meeting and placed upon a throne. 
They spoke a few words as they were bidden, and 
then were carried back to their retreat, not to be 
10 exhibited again until the next year. They were 
really so feeble in character that the mayors of the 
palace were obliged to attend to all the affairs of 
the nation, as Charles Martel discovered when he 
became the mayor. 

15 It was now about one hundred years since Mo- 
hammed had given to Arabia its new religion, and 
this had been carried through northern Africa and 
over into Spain. The* Mohammedans had crossed 
the strait separating Africa from Spain under their 
20 leader, Gebel-al-Tarik, for whom Gibraltar was 
named. Then they had pushed on in their conquer- 
ing career, through Spain, and over the Pyrenees, 
into France. In 732, hearing that there was a rich 
abbey at Tours, they marched north to plunder it. 
25 Do you wonder that the Christians everywhere 
were frightened, and that to the litany was added 
a prayer “ for deliverance from the Mohamme- 
dans ” ? Trace the route on your map from Ara- 


291 


bia, through northern Africa, over into Spain, and up 
through France to Tours, and you will have some 
idea of the conquests already made by the Saracens. 

Charles, the rnayor of the palace, now appeared 
with his strong, opposing army of Franks. This 5 
is to be the opportunity of his life. He meets the 
Saracens near Tours in the year 732, and there for 
six days Mohammedan and Christian face each 
other. Which is to win? On the seventh day 
they joined in a terrific fight. The Arabs on their lo 
beautiful steeds, and with their glittering Damas- 
cus blades, fought the Franks encased in helmets, 
and terrible with battle-axes. The Mohammedan 
ranks were broken and their leader was killed ; 
while the sturdy Franks never gave way, but 15 
fought till sundown. At night all rested upon 
the battle-field. In the morning the Franks drew 
up their forces for another onset. But lo ! in the 
darkness of the night the Arabs had silently stolen 
away, and never again have they dared to invade 20 
France. Do you not think that Charles Martel 
bravely won his title ? 


Charlemagne 

Charlemagne is the only hero whom we can 
recall in history, in whose single name the word 
« great ” always forms a part. Charlemagne was 26 



CHABLEMAQNS 




293 


the son of Pepin le Bref, and grandson of Charles 
Martel. No one has written about his childhood, 
but we know from what he did after he grew to be 
a man that he must have been a brave and earnest 
boy. Pepin had made a great mistake in not feel- 6 
ing it necessary to have his little son taught to 
write ; for Charlemagne, even after he became 
king, was always trying to learn. He carried 
about with him a waxed tablet and stylus or metal 
pen, and practiced whenever he had time. Heio 
understood mathematics and astronomy and other 
sciences ; and, it is thought, also Latin, Greek, 
French, and German ; but he was always ashamed 
of his penmanship. 

Every spring he called a solemn national assem-l6 
bly, at which laws were made for the government 
of the country, and here all questions of public 
interest were submitted. At first these assemblies 
were called Champs de Mars because they met in 
March; and later, meeting in May, they became 20 
(the Champs de Mai. This was to the Franks what 
',our Congress at Washington is to our country ; but 
^at these assemblies the king and bishops and dukes 
and counts seated on horseback gathered on an 
open plain, while our senators and representatives 25 
meet in our magnificent Capitol. The reign of 
Charlemagne was almost a perpetual war. He was 
called the “Man of Iron,’’ and his Franks went 


294 


forth to battle encased in helmets and armed with 
swords and spears. They carried on bloody con- 
tests with the Lombards in Italy, the Saracens in 
Spain, and the Saxons in Germany. The first fight 
6 was with the Lombards, who lived in northern 
Italy. Desiderius, their king, had badly treated 
both the Pope ^nd Charlemagne, and the latter, 
with his army, made a difficult passage over the 
Alps and approached Pavia, their capital city. It 
10 was not long before Pavia submitted, and Deside- 
rius was shut up in a monastery. Then Charle- 
magne crowned himself with the iron crown of 
Lombardy, said to have been made from the nails 
of the true cross. He then visited Rome, receiving 
15 thanks and gifts from the Pope. 

Charlemagne was invited now to fight against the 
Moors in Spain. Charles Martel had driven them 
out of France, but they remained for hundreds of 
years in Spain, where they built splendid cities and 
20 palaces and mosques. Charlemagne gathered his 
warriors and marched into Spain, gaining so many 
victories that the Arabs were frightened, fearing he 
would destroy their beautiful cities. They offered 
him large rewards if only he would leave. He 
25 promised to do so, and started for home ; but the 
Basques and Gascons fell upon the rear of his army, 
which was led by gallant Roland, in the pass of 
Roncesvalles, and it was cut to pieces before Char- 


lemagne could go to its relief. Very little is saici 
about this in history, but we shall see later that 
Roland became a hero of romance. 

Charlemagne’s third war was against the Saxons. 
This was the most bloody of all, and the struggle 
continued for over thirty years. When Charle- 
magne’s wars were over, his kingdom extended 
from the Ebro to the Vistula, and from the Carpa- 
thian Mountains to the bay of Biscay. Aix-la- 
Chapelle, his capital city, became the center of all 
the things which most interested Charlemagne. 
He established schools, gathering to them as teach- 
ers learned men from every country. He visited 
the schools from time to time, and if he found the 
sons of the noblemen proud and idle, he told them 
that they must not value wealth too highly, but 
give up dress and pleasure and devote themselves 
to books. 

Boys were examined not only in book-learning, 
but in matters about the chase, horsemanship, and 
military tactics. . 

Girls, also, were taught very practical things. 
Charlemagne’s daughters could sew and cook, and 
handle the spindle and distaff in making cloth. 
They wove the garments which their father wore 
in hunting, and often went with him on his expe- 
ditions. 

He invited singers from Italy to teach his sub- 


5 

10 

15 

20 

25 


296 


jects; for the singing of the Franks made him 
think either of a squeaking wagon or the howling 
of wild beasts. Many singing-schools were formed. 

To Charlemagne Aix-la-Chapelle was a “little 
5 Rome.” His palace there was magnificent, with 
halls and galleries, and a theater decorated with^ 
elegant marbles brought from Italy. Charlemagne 
most enjoyed the great swimming-bath, and some- 
times one hundred nobles would be swimming in it 
10 with him. 

In 800 A.D. Charlemagne was invited to Rome, 
and there was crowned by the Pope as the new 
emperor of the Roman Empire. 

He marched in the procession to the old church 
16 of St. Peter’s, and as he entered, the choir sang, 
“ Blessed be he that cometh in the name of the 
Lord.” Then the Pope placed upon his head a 
golden crown, and the citizens shouted, “ Long live 
Carolus Augustus the Caesar ! ” From that time 
20 until to-day Caesar, or Kaiser, as the Germans call 
it, has been the official title of all the German 
emperors. 

Charlemange was really the champion of Chris- 
tianity, for the cross went everywhere with his 
25 army. 

He made some very famous laws called capitu- 
laries. They related to all kinds of things concern- 
ing the welfare of his people, even to the varieties 





CORONATION OF CHARLEMAGNE 






298 


of trees and flowers best for a garden, and to the 
ways in which poultry should be fed and housed. 

Charlemagne had a real genius for friendship. 
Among his admirers was Haroun-al-Raschid, Khali f 
5 of Persia, whom we know as the hero of the 
« Arabian Nights.” He sent to Charlemagne stuffs, 
and perfume, an elephant, a beautiful tent, a set of 
carved chess-men, and, most interesting of all, a 
clock, the like of which had never been seen in 
10 Europe. It had little doors which would open 
and close, and out of which twelve tiny knights 
would come and parade. 

Before leaving Charlemagne, let us get a nearer 
glimpse of him. He was a tall, large man, with 
15 friendly face and dignified maimer. Ordinarily he 
wore a simple Frankish dress with a long cloak. 
“For of what use are short mantles?” he would 
say, “ they cannot protect one from wind or rain 
or on horseback.” 

20 At the great assemblies, however, his dress was 
gorgeous, embroidered with gold; his shoes were 
adorned with precious stones, and on his head was 
a sparkling diadem. His good sword Joyeuse was 
always at his side. 

25 During his last illness he despised the advice of 
physicians, saying that only fasting was necessary 
to drive off disease. He died in 814, and was 
buried in the cathedral at Aix-la-Chapelle. Arrayed 


299 


in royal robes, he was seated on a marble chair in 
his tomb, with a scepter in his hand, the Gospel in 
his lap, and his precious Joyeuse by his side. 

Louis, his son, proved himself a weak ruler, and 
very soon France, Germany, and Italy had separate 6 
governments; but for centuries, in each of these 
countries, were seen the results of the great work 
of Charlemagne. He must remain the most re- 
nowned ruler in mediaeval history, and one of the 
favorite heroes of the world. lO 


Roland 

Medieval romance is full of stories of brave 
knights and beautiful ladies, of grim giants and 
mischievous dwarfs, of enchanted castles and chiv- 
alrous adventures. Sometimes it seems a jumble 
of history and legend, and perhaps this makes it 15 
all the more interesting; but no boy or girl of 
to-day can understand how eagerly these stories 
were sought in the olden time. 

We have read of the Nibel ungen knights and 
ladies, and now appears Roland, a more romantic 20 
hero than the invulnerable Siegfried. He is men- 
tioned just once in real history as having been 
killed with his rear guard at Roncesvalles. 

Legend makes him one of the boldest and most 
attractive of knights, terrible in- battle, and gentle 26 


300 


in times of peace. His praises were sung alike by 
Spanish peasants and French troubadours. The 
“ Chanson de Roland,” a poem of* forty thousand 
lines, telling of his numerous adventures, was 
6 greatly valued in the literature of the Middle 
Ages. His first appearance is as follows : — 

One day when Charlemagne and his courtiers 
were feasting, a beautiful boy entered the banquet- 
ing hall and, walking fearlessly to the table, took 
10 some provisions and carried them away. Presently 
he returned, and taking the emperor’s cup of wine, 
was once more going out. To Charlemagne’s ques- 
tions the boy replied that his mother was nearly 
dying of hunger, and that he, as her little page, 
15 must carry her food. He then revealed that his 
mother was the king’s sister, and that he was 
Roland, his nephew, and begged for assistance 
on this account. Then Charlemagne’s heart was 
touched. He provided for the mother, and took 
20 the boy into his service. 

The next story of Roland introduces a robber 
knight who wore in his shield a costly jewel which 
Charlemagne wished to possess. So he sent forth 
his men to challenge the robber and to win the 
25 jewel at the point of the lance. 

Roland went with the knights as armor-bearer, 
and while they slept, he strolled forth into the 
forest in search of . adventure. Presently he saw 


301 


coining toward him a huge man with a brilliant 
stone in his shield. Roland instantly killed him 
and carried the jewel to Charlemagne. Then the 
king made the boy a count of the palace or pala- 
din. Later occurred the adventure in the vale of 
Roncesvalles. 

It was night, and Roland was leading the rear- 
guard of Charlemagne’s army. Silently and stealth- 
ily the Arabs fell upon the Franks in the narrow 
pass. Roland and his companions fought bravely, 
but not until too late did he blow a blast on his 
wonderful horn that earlier should have recalled 
his uncle to the rescue. All the guards were 
killed, and among them Roland’s life-long friend, 
Oliver. 

As Roland lay dying, he killed his faithful steed 
to prevent its falling into the enemy’s hands, and 
he tried to break his matchless sword by hurling 
it against a rock. It struck with great force, mak- 
ing a cleft which is still shown by the Spanish 
peasants. To-day they delight to tell the story of 
the heroic Roland, and of the turbaned Arabs who 
silently did their deed and then stole away into 
the darkness. 

As we sail over one of the most beautiful j)arts 
of the Rhine and pass the island of Nonnen worth, 
we may gaze toward the “ Castled crag of Drach- 
enfels,” and over to the one crumbling arch of 


5 

10 

15 

20 

25 


802 


Rolandseck, which recalls Roland’s touching lore 
romance. It is said that one day, longing for 
adventure, he climbed Drachenfels, and asked ad- 
mittance to the castle of Drachenberg. Count 
sHeribert, hearing that his guest was the renowned 
knight Roland, welcomed him royally. 

The count’s lovely daughter, Hildegunde, as was 
the custom, brought bread and fish and wine. 
Roland’s gaze was riveted by her beauty, and hers 
10 by his renown, and soon they were betrothed. 
But not long after their happiness was interrupted ; 
for summons came from Charlemagne that Roland 
must return at once to fight the Saracens. The 
lovers parted in sadness, Roland promising to go 
15 back when the war was over. Then came tidings 
of his bravery, and later of his death. Poor Hilde- 
gunde was unconsolable. She retired to the Klos- 
ter House which we still see on the island of 
Nonnenworth, just in sight of her old home. Her 
20 parents watched her daily, and sometimes she 
waved her hand to them. 

In this legend Roland was not killed but very 
severely wounded, and as soon as he had recovered 
he returned to claim his Hildegunde. When he 
25 heard that she had gone into a convent, and so 
was forever lost to him, he was filled with grief 
too great for words. He built the castle of Ro- 
landseck, overlooking the river, that he might be 


803 


near his loved one, and sometimes he caught a 
glimpse of Hildegunde going to and coming from 
her devotions. But one day he missed her, and 
the tolling of the convent bell and the sad proces- 
sion which he watched proved to him that she was 6 
dead. Roland was broken-hearted and never spoke 
again, but sat always gazing on the convent until 
he died. 

This is but one of the many legends of love and 
war clustering about the castles of the storied lO 
Rhine. They are valuable, because they give us 
such true glimpses of the manners and hospitality 
and chivalry and love-making of the old romantic 
days! 

‘‘The castled crag of Drachenfels 16 

Browns o’er the wide and winding Rhine, 

Whose breast of waters broadly swells 
Between the banks which bear the vine ; 

And hills all rich with blossom’d trees, 

And fields which promise corn and wine. 20 

And scatter’d cities crowning there. 

Whose far white walls along them shine. 

Have strew’d a scene which I should see 
With double joy wert thou with me.” 

— Byron, Childe Harold. 


Peter the Hermit 

It is inspiring to visit places where great men 26 
have lived or where a monument recalls some 


304 


heroic deed. Those of us, for example, who have 
been to Mount Vernon and seen there the home 
and tomb of Washington feel a new interest in the 
life of the «« Father of our Country.” 

6 In Palestine, or the Holy Land, are found the 
most sacred of all shrines. In the Middle Ages, 
pilgrimages were made there to places associated 
with Christ’s birth and life and death. 

At this Uime there lived in France a restless, 
10 austere man named Peter, who, after failing in 
many things, had become a hermit. 

In the year 1093, Peter the Hermit, for so he 
is always called, left his retreat and went with 
other pilgrims to Jerusalem. There he was 
16 shocked to see the scorn and cruelty with which 
the poor pilgrims were treated. The aged patri- 
arch Simeon, who was in charge of the holy places, 
was in despair. He confided to Peter the Hermit 
that there was no power in the East able to deliver 
20 the Christians from the Turks ; and Peter encour- 
aged him by saying that the western warriors 
would come and save them. 

One day, as Peter was praying at the Holy Sep- 
ulcher, he seemed to hear a voice bidding him 
26 arise and go forth. At once vowing that he would 
rouse all Europe against the Turks, he hastened 
across the sea to Rome, and threw himself at the 
feet of Pope Urban II. With pale face and flash* 


305 


ing eyes, he told his story and begged for help. 
The Pope received him as if he were a prophet, 
telling him to go through Italy and France and 
preach to the people, rousing them to deliver Jeru- 
salem. Then Peter, filled with hope and courage, 6 
went forth on his noble mission. He was dressed 
in a long frock of coarsest stuff, tied with a thick 
cord. His head and feet were bare, and he car- 
ried a crucifix, and rode upon a mule. 

What a singular appearance he must have pre-io 
sented, riding through the country of stopping to 
preach on the road or in the field ! But people 
thought only of his wonderful message ; his fierce 
words startled their rude minds. The farmer left 
his plow, the merchant his goods ; and crowds 15 
flocked to him from everywhere as if he were a 
messenger from heaven. Those who could touch 
his frock were happy, and even the hairs from his 
mule were sought as relics. 

This was a restless age, and everybody was seek- 20 
ing for some great adventure. 

In the year 1095 the Pope held a council at Cler- 
mont in France, and the town could not hold all the 
people who came to listen. The Pope and Peter 
both addressed the people, telling once more the 25 
dreadful tales of outrage and murder. The Pope 
recalled how bravely Charles Martel had fought 
against the Saracens, and besought them to go at 


X 


306 


once in the same spirit to free Jerusalem from the 
Turks. Throughout the assembly, the cry was 
heard, “ God wills it ! God wills it ! ” 

At the close of the meeting, at the Pope’s sug- 
sgestion, thousands knelt, and upon the shoulder of 
each was fastened a red cross of cotton and silk) 
Whoever received this became a croisee or crusader. 

It was some time before the first Crusade under 
able leaders was ready to start. But people of all 
10 classes flocked to Peter, begging him to inarch at 
once, instead of waiting for the regular army. He 
foolishly set out, with Walter the Penniless also 
in command, leading an army of eighty thousand 
men, women, and children. It was a perfect 
16 rabble; Some men took their whole families in 
ox-carts ; they had scant provision and all kinds 
of queer weapons. Many knew so little of the 
distance that, on seeing a castle or a town, they 
would ask if that was Jerusalem. 

20 Peter the Hermit was a preacher, but not a 
leader. His followers would not obey him. They 
were hungry and exhausted, and robbed the coum' 
try through which they went. Finally they were 
surprised by the Turks, and all but a few thoud 
25 sand were slaughtered. 

But Peter escaped, and a little later joyfully 
entered Jerusalem with the main army of the first 
Crusade. The troops were well-disciplined, and 



GODFREY DE BOUILLON ENTERS JERUSALEM 





308 


had reached the Holy Land, defeated the Turks, 
and captured the Holy City. Godfrey, »their prin- 
cipal leader, was offered a golden crown, but he 
refused to wear one in the city where his Lord had 
6 worn a crown of thorns. He became instead “ De- 
fender of the Holy Sepulcher.” 

Peter, the “Apostle of the first Crusade,” preached 
to the Crusaders from the Mount of Olives, and 
there, falling on their knees, they thanked God for 
10 the wonderful things that had been accomplished 
by his preaching. After this he returned quietly 
to his monastery in France, and there he died, 
faithful to the end to the solemn vow which he 
had made at the Holy Sepulcher. 


Frederick Barbarossa 

15 Frederick Barbarossa, emperor of Germany, 
was so constantly on the move from one part of 
his dominions to another that in order to read his 
life intelligently we should locate the principal 
cities in which he was interested, — Frankfort-on- 
20 the-Main, Aix-la-Chapelle, and Mayence, in Germany, 
and Pavia, Milan, Rome, and Venice, in Italy. 

Frederick Barbarossa belonged to the noble 
house of Hohenstaufen. He ascended the throne 
in 1152, and is one of the best loved and most 
26 famous rulers in Germany." After his coronation 


309 


at Aix-la-Chapelle, he took a royal ride over his 
dominions to show himself to his people, and every- 
where they hailed him with delight. 

Frederick claimed rule over Germany and Italy. 

Soon after his coronation, Frederick crossed the 
Alps to grasp Italy. First he was crowned at 
Pavia with the iron crown of Lombardy. He then 
went to Rome, where he was crowned by the Pope. 

Frederick, on his return to Germany, found that 
the robber knights had grown very powerful. It 
was a lawless age, and these robbers lived in forti- 
fied castles, whence they constantly sallied to rob 
and kill travelers. Frederick had many of them 
put to death, and then he destroyed their castles. 

Next he determined to punish Milan for tyran- 
nizing over the smaller Italian towns. He marched 
with his army to the very walls of the city. After 
he had waited quietly for some time, a curious 
procession came from the gates of Milan. First, 
there were the clergy, barefooted and in tattered 
robes, then the city officers, some with cords and 
^ome with swords suspended from their necks in 
token of submission. 

Falling at the feet of the emperor, they humbly 
swore their allegiance. Frederick forgave them 
and left the city. Not long afterward they again 
revolted. Then Frederick returned, the procession 
once more came out., and with weeping and wailing 


5 

10 

15 

20 

25 


810 


promised to obey. This time, however, Frederick 
did not yield. He first sent away his wife Bea- 
trice, lest she should intercede to save the city^ 
Then the harvests were destroyed and the people 
6 suffered from terrible famine. The inhabitants of 
Lodi were allowed to enter Milan and pull down 
the walls and forts, and in six days the city was a 
scene of desolation. 

The sacred car which always carried the beautn 
10 ful banner of the city was broken to pieces and the 
banner was trampled in the dust. The people 
were obliged to leave their homes with what little 
they could carry with them. The whole city was 
given over to plunder by Frederick’s army. Now 
15 Frederick had gone too far. On his return to Ger- 
many he tried to put down the dukes and counts 
who were growing very powerful. Two of these,. 
Henry the Lion and Albert the Bear, really did 
more to make Germany strong than all that Fred- 
20 erick had accomplished. 

There is an old German rhyme which reads • =— 

" Henry the Lion, and Albert the Bear, 

Thereto Frederick with the red hair, 

Three lords are they, 

25 Who could change the world to their way«^' 

Several Italian cities at this time were becom- 
ing very rich by selling ships to the crusaders and 


311 


by their commerce with the countries of the East. 
These cities were greatly indignant about the treat- 
ment which Milan had received. They joined in a 
union called the Lombard League. 

Naturally Frederick gathered another great army 5 
and invaded Italy in 1176 . A battle was fought at 
Legnano. The Milanese had rebuilt their car with 
its sacred banner, and this was placed in the center 
of the army, and surrounded by three hundred 
youths who vowed to defend it with their lives. 10 

Frederick’s army pressed onward to capture the 
car, but the brilliant Italian squadrons rushed upon 
it with such fury that it was weakened. How- 
ever, the Germans fought bravely and had almost 
reached the car, and even had torn its decorations, 15 
when suddenly Frederick disappeared. Terror and 
confusion seized upon his troops. They were com- 
pletely defeated and fled as best they could. 

Frederick was thought to be dead, and his wife, 
the gentle Beatrice, put on a mourning robe ; but, to 20 
the joy of his friends, he appeared after a few days 
in Pavia. His armor-bearer had been killed and 
then his horse. Frederick had been dragged out 
from under them, and in disguise had escaped with 
a few followers. He now went to Venice, and 26 
threw himself at the feet of the Popb',. 

The Pope raised him and gave him the kiss of 
peace, and the Germans were so delighted with 


312 


Frederick’s unusual gentleness Ihat they exclaimed, 
“ Lord God, we praise Thee ! ” 

We may be sure that after this Frederick never 
interfered again with the affairs of Italy. 

% After he returned to Germany, a grand tourna- 
ment was held at Mayence. It was proclaimed by 
heralds all over the land. The field was gay with 
banners, and with tents of silk and gold. 

Thousands of brave knights fought in the mimic 
10 battle ; thousands of beautiful ladies watched the 
scene. 

He who unhorsed his antagonist had as his re- 
ward a jewel or a richly caparisoned horse, and 
best of all the praises of his lady-love. 

15 Frederick rode in the lists with his five sons, and 
for centuries the minstrels sang of the knightly 
deeds of the tournament at Mayence. 

The life of warlike old Barbarossa had been very 
full of conflict, and it seems as if now he might 
20 end his days in peace ; but this was not to be. 

Saladin, the sultan of Egypt, had taken 
Jerusalem; and, in 1189, the Pope, for the third 
time, called on the sovereigns of Europe to go 
on a crusade to rescue the Holy City. 

25 Richard Coeur de Lion of England, Philip i^.ugus- 
tus of France, and Frederick Barbarossa of Ger- 
many, the three leading rulers of Europe in the 
twelfth century, started for Jerusalem. 


313 


I 


Frederick, leaving Germany in the care of his son 
Henry, led an army of one hundred thousand men. 
He was seventy years old; but he showed great 
vigor in his encounters with the enemies met on 
the journey. 6 

His magnificent army crossed Hungary and Asia 
Minor ; but one day, when Frederick was trying to 
ford a stream, he was carried off his horse and 
down the current, and was drowned. 

The disheartened German army returned to Ger- 10 
many. 

The news of Frederick Barbarossa’s death was 
terrible to the Germans. 

They even refused to believe it. 

They greatly loved their warlike king, and, from 15 
the year 1170 until to-day, the name of Frederick 
Barbarossa has been most sacred and inspiriting to 
the patriotic. German heart. 

His favorite city was Frankfort ; but his splen- 
did castle of Staufen, near the little village of 20 
Hohenstaufen, was his home. 

Later, in 1525, this was burned in the Peasants’ 
War, but the little church remains. At one side 
is an old door through which Frederick used to 
enter ; and on it is a worn fresco of the martial 26 
king, bearing the appropriate inscription, “Friend 
of the good and terror of the bad.” 


, 314 

Rienzi 

During the Middle Ages, Italy had no central 
government. Many of the cities w-ere ruled by a 
noble family, and the Pope as head of the Church 
was supreme in Rome. 

"5 But in the fourteenth century the Papal See 
had been removed for a time from Rome to 
Avignon in France ; and Rome, without the Pope, 
was in a state of constant uprising. The Colonna 
and Orsini families were at the head of rival 
10 parties of nobles, and their palaces were turned 
into fortified castles. The retainers of the nobles, 
either as foot-soldiers, or mounted on gallant steeds, 
had many sudden fierce encounters in the streets. 

Everything was so unsafe that even the monu- 
isments built in the reigns of the early emperors 
were used as places of defense. 

At this time, Nicolai di Rienzi, the son of a Ro- 
man inn-keeper, began to interest himself in the 
affairs of the people. As a bo}^, he had seen his 
20 brother killed -in a street skirmish, and his first 
desire had been to revenge the deed. 

As he grew older, he became a dreamer and a 
scholar. He loved the history of ancient Rome. 
Julius Caesar was his hero, and the more he read, 
26 the greater was his interest in the story of “the 
brave days of old.” 


315 


Rienzi had a soft voice and winning manners, 
and he was an eloquent speaker. He addressed 
the people about their rights, and they liked him 
so much that they sent him with the poet Petrarch 
on an embassy to Avignon to beg the Pope to re- 6 
turn to Rome. 

The Pope, on receiving the embassy, was so 
charmed with young Rienzi that, during his stay 
in Avignon, he sent for him daily to hear him talk. 

Petrarch, also, was interested in him. 10 

He, too, had his dream of Roman liberty, and 
saw in Rienzi the one who might restore to the 
city its ancient glory. 

The Pope did not* return, and Rienzi began to 
think that he himself was destined to free thei6 
people from their bondage. 

When he went back to Rome, they grew more 
and more excited by his words. 

Secret midnight meetings were held, and finally 
it was decided that on a certain day, at a given 20 
signal, the government should be overturned. 

It was the morning of the 19th of May, 
1347. The Colonna were absent from the city and 
the streets were very quiet. Suddenly the blast of 
a trumpet was heard. In a few moments crowds 25 
gathered, and there was intense excitement. 

This was Rienzi’s summons for all to assemble 
at the Capitol the next morning. 


316 


When the time came, he appeared clad in com- 
plete armor. He was accompanied by the Pope’s 
vicar, and, followed by throngs of people, he led 
the army to the Capitol. There on the steps the 
6 new “ Laws of Good Estate ” 'were read. 

These contained Rienzi’s excellent ideas of jus- 
tice and liberty. The people shouted approval, 
and Rienzi was made dictator and took the title 
of Tribune. 

10 The nobles were awed by the sudden resolutions. 

They were obliged to give up their fortress pal- 
aces, to take an oath that they would keep the 
roads secure, and to appear armed or unarmed as 
the city should hereafter demand. 

16 Haughty old Stephen Colonna would have liked 
to throw Rienzi out of the window ; but instead 
he was obliged to be perfectly submissive. 

Rienzi took his oath in the following words : 
“Nicolai, by the grace of Jesus Christ, the severe 

20 and merciful Tribune of freedom, the deliverer of 
the Roman Republic.” 

For a few months all was peaceful. The roads 
were no longer infested by robbers, and pilgrims 
came and went freely. 

26 Justice was rightly administered, and, as the 
historian says, “ A purse of gold might be exposed 
in the highway without danger.” Rienzi’s greater 
scheme was to bring all the cities of Italy under 


31T 


his government. But, unfortunately, as soon as all 
was going well, he became very proud. He had 
many processions and exhibitions in which he was 
the central figure, and many lords and ladies waited 
upon his wife and himself as if they were royal. 6 
Then he was crowned publicly with seven crowns. 

He announced himself as the Deliverer of Rome, 
Defender of Italy, Friend of Mankind, of Liberty, 
of Peace, and of Justice,” and finally as “ Tribune 
August.” 10 

Rienzi had gone too far. The people were dis- 
gusted with his pomp, and with the heavy taxes 
which he levied to pay for all his exhibitions. 
They would no longer come at his call, and the . 
nobles banded together against him. 16 

The Pope excommunicated him, and Rienzi, in 
the disguise of a monk, escaped. We find him later 
at the court of the German emperor, Charles IV, 
begging for assistance to retake Rome. Charles, 
however, delivered him to the Pope, who kept him 20 
in Avignon. Several years passed. Affairs were 
again very bad in Rome, for the nobles once more 
were tyrants. 

Petrarch had begged that Rienzi might be sent 
back, and the Pope finally yielded. He was to go 26 
now as a senator and to restore order. 

So Rienzi returned, and, strange as it may seem, 
he had not yet learned his lesson. He established 


318 


the same pomp and luxury as before, making the 
people pay very heavy taxes. In a few months 
they rose against him. He fled to the Capitol and 
tried to address them. They assaulted him, and 
6 he attempted to escape in disguise. He was dis- 
covered by his bracelet, which he had forgotten to 
remove, and was stabbed with many wounds. This 
was in 1354, and it was not until 1861 that Italy 
became free and united. Petrarch, in his disap- 
10 pointment at Rienzi’s failure, said, “ I loved his 
virtues ; I praised his designs ; I congratulated 
Italy ; I looked forward to the dominion of the 
beloved city and the peace of the world.” 

The Black Prince 

The most noted man of England in the four- 
15 teen th century was Edward III. His wife was 
the good Queen Philippa, and their son Edward, 
the Black Prince, was one of the most famous of 
historic boys. He was a robust and handsome 
child ; gentle and kind-hearted like his mother, 
20 brave and high-spirited like his father. When but 
seven years old, he was made Duke of Cornwall. 
After receiving the title, he at once dubbed twenty 
knights. Imagine tlie little fellow just old enough 
to be a page, giving the sword strokes to grown-up 
26 squires, and bidding them as knights to be hence- 
forth faithful and brave. 


319 


Later, he became the Prince of Wales. This 
title had been given in the thirteenth century to 
the eldest son of the king of England. The king 
had conquered Wales, and had promised the Welch 
that he would give them a king who could not 6| 
speak a word of English. Whom should he select 
but his own baby son, born in Caernarvon Castle 
in Wales, in that very year, 1284. 

When the title was given to young Edward, he 
received besides Wales, a coronet of gold, a ring, lo 
and a silver wand. Then a splendid tournament 
was held in Windsor Castle, and Edward III took 
part in all the feats of arms. The tournament 
was in honor of the legendary King Arthur and 
his knights, for all had sung the songs and read the 15 
romance of the search for the Holy Grail. 

At about this time one of the longest contests 
in history, the “ Hundred Years’ War,” was just 
breaking out between England and France. One 
of its principal causes was a claim which Ed - 20 
ward III of England had made to the throne of 
Philip VI of France. Edward said that as his 
mother was a French princess he should rule both 
countries. 

The French, however, had the « Salic Law,” 26 
which held that no woman should rule over France, 
or give this right to her son. So, although Edward 
had not the slightest claim, he determined to fight. 


320 


The principal battles of the war were Crecy, 
Poitiers, and Agincourt. 

All three were fought in France, and all were 
won by the English. 

6 Edward, whom now we shall call the Black 
Prince, — from the color of his armor, — became 
famous because he gained both Crecy and Poitiers. 

The war really commenced in 1340, when the 
English gained a sea fight off the coast of Sluys. 
10 No one dared tell the French King Philip VI 
that his navy was defeated until the court fool 
cried out that the English were cowards. “ Why ? ” 
replied Philip. “Because,” answered the jester, 
“ they did not dare to jump boldly into the sea at 
16 Sluys as our brave French and Normans did ! ” 

The king now crossed the Channel and invaded 
’ France. 

The Black Prince was not yet sixteen years old, 
but his father, knowing what a fearless boy he 
20 was, made him commander over one of the divi- 
sions of the army. 

The French with a very large force, and the 
English with but a few thousand men, met at 
Cr^cy. 

25 The English took a fine position on rising 
ground, and the famous archers were placed in 
front. 

In those days no foot-soldiers in any army coul(? 


321 


rival these archers. The English were trained from 
boyhood to the use of the bow. Edward III, with 
a reserve force, took his position near an old wind- 
mill, in the rear of the army, for he wished the 
Black Prince to win the battle. The French, re- 
splendent in their arms, advanced and too hastily 
attacked the English. Then the English archers 
let fly their arrows into the midst of the French 
knights with most destructive power. 

The blind old king of Bohemia, hearing that his 
son was wounded, begged to sfrike but one good 
stroke for the French. Two knights tied his horse 
between them and led him into the battle. All 
three were killed. 

The king of Bohemia had as his crest three white 
ostrich plumes with the beautiful motto « Ich dien ” 
(I serve). 

This was adopted by the Black Prince, and ever 
since has been seen on the crest of the Prince of 
Wales. 

The Black Prince we may know was in the 
midst of the fight directing everything. Once he 
seemed sore pressed, and a messenger rushed with 
hot haste to the king, begging him to send aid to 
the noble boy. 

“ Is my son killed or wounded ? ” Edward asked. 
“ Neither,” was the reply. Then let the boy win 
his spurs ; let the day be his ; ” and he did win then! 

r 


5 

10 

15 

20 

25 



chahgBj of the chivalht at the BATTT f of cbfct 




823 


most gloriously. The French could not long bear 
the shower of English arrows. They fled in great 
disorder, leaving more dead upon the field than 
the whole number of the English army. After the 
battle King Edward came forward, and clasping 6 
his son in his arms exclaimed, God give you 
perseverance in your course my child ; nobly have 
you acquitted yourself, and worthy are you of the 
place you hold.” 

The Black Prince sank on his knees, and prayed 10 
his father’s blessing after such a day of battle. 

Cannon were used for the first time in this bat- 
tle. There were two of them, and they were so 
clumsy that it was long before the English tried 
them again. They were described as “engines 16 
which threw little iron balls to frighten the 
horses.” 

Edward led his army from Crecy to Calais, and 
he besieged this town for months until the people 
were starving. 20 

He finally consented to spare the inhabitants if 
six of the principal citizens, barefooted and with 
halters about their necks, should bring to him the 
keys of the city. . Six heroic men came out. 
Edward was about to order them put to death, 25 
when good Queen Philippa begged him to spare 
their lives. 

The king gelded, and the happy queen sent them 


324 


back into the city loaded with gifts. Then the 
king returned to England, and we may imagine 
with what festivity and rejoicing the brave Black 
Prince was received. Indeed, ever since, England 
6 has been proud of the fame won by its “B03’ 
Knight.” Several years later the war once more 
broke out, and the Black Prince went to France, 
carrying fire and sword and capturing towns and 
fortresses. King John of France determined that 
10 he would avenge the battle of Crecy by conquer- 
ing the famous prince. So as Edward was making 
his way to the coast with much booty and a small 
army of eight thousand men, he suddenly came 
face to face at Poitiers with a French army num- 
isbering sixty thousand men. 

“God help us,” exclaimed the Black Prince; 
“ we must make the best of it.” 

He at once drew up his forces on rising ground 
amid thick vineyards. 

20 The path leading to his army was through a 
deep ravine, bordered on both sides by hedges. 
Archers were concealed in the hedges, and also 
placed on the front rank of the army, while the 
men at arms were behind. 

26 Not knowing that English archers were concealed 
in the hedges, the French knights charged througli 
the lane and up the hill. They were overwhelmed by 
the arrows of the English, pressing them from every 


325 


direction. The horses reared and plunged and the 
knights fell back in their ranks below. 

Then how the Black Prince charged right down 
the hill into the midst of the French army ! So it was 
that in. 1346, he won the renowned battle of Poitiers. 6 

The French king was taken prisoner, and the 
Black Prince treated him with the greatest cour- 
tesy. He conducted him back to London. As the 
procession entered the city. King John rode on a 
richlj^ caparisoned white charger, and the Black lo 
Prince, bareheaded, was by his side, on a little 
black pony. The Black Prince conducted King 
John to Edward III, who received his royal prisoner 
with great state. It is said that at the banquet 
which followed the Black Prince waited on theis 
kingly guest. 

After this, the character of the Black Prince 
completely changed. He became gloomy and sus- 
picious, and showed no mercy. In both France and 
Spain, he stained the memory of his great victories 20 
by laying waste the country and by aiding Pedro, 
a wicked king of Castile. Perhaps the change was 
caused by a serious illness contracted in Spain, for 
often the prince was obliged to be carried on a 
litter at the head of his army. He never recovered, 25 
and returned to England to die. 

He is buried in Canterbury Cathedral. Sus- 
pended from a beam above his tomb, is an ancient 


326 


coat of mail, a helmet, and a pair of gauntlets, 
which are said to have been worn by him. 

The nation mourned his death, and well it might, 
for he had won for the country two of its greatest 
6 battles. 

Joan of Arc 

After the battles of Crecy and Poitiers, many 
years pass before we again hear of the Hundred Years’ 
War. But when the brave Henry V was on the 
throne of England and the insane Charles VI on the 
10 throne of France, the war was once more commenced. 

France was in a very disordered condition, as 
any country must be with an insane king ; and so 
Henry of England thought that this would be a good 
time to conquer it. He crossed over to France, and 
15 in the year 1415 won the battle of Agincourt. In 
two ways this was like the battles of Crecy and 
Poitiers ; the English had a much smaller army 
than the French, and showers of arrows winged 
by terrible English bowmen scattered the French 
20 knights in great confusion. 

After the battle, the treaty of Troyes was made, 
and this was a shameful one for France. It pro- 
vided that on the death of Charles, France should 
be given to England, and that the English king 
26 should rule over both countries. You remember 
that this was just the thing for which Edward III 
had fought when he commenced the war nearly 
one hundred years earlier. 


327 


Not long after the treaty of Troyes, the kings 
of England and France both died. We may imag- 
ine what confusion now reigned in France. 

The baby son of Henry V of England was pro- 
claimed king at Paris, while the French who would 
not accept English rule had the son of Charles VI 
crowned at Bourges. 

For a long time the only title which young 
Charles could claim was “ King of Bourges.” 
Charles was now twenty years old, an idle, timid, 
good-natured fellow, having no ambition to struggle 
for his throne. In fact, it seemed useless for him 
to try. While he was so poor that he could not 
buy a pair of boots, how could he support an army? 

He held his little court at Chinon on the Loire, 
and there he just amused himself from day to day 
with his gay companions. The English had garri- 
sons all over France, and their soldiers treated the 
French peasants very roughly. 

The English were besieging Orleans, the only 
stronghold that yet remained to the French. 
They had built towers about it, from which to 
attack the walls, and the French knew that they 
could not hold out much longer. 

The condition of the country seemed both help- 
less and hopeless. Just now, however, in one of 
the darkest hours in the history of France, a de- 
liverer suddenly appeared. 


5 

10 

15 

20 

25 


328 


This was Joan of Arc, a simple peasant maiden, 
only seventeen years of age. She was born in 
1412, in a little cottage in the village of Domremy, 
in Lorraine. She was a gentle, serious girl, with 
5 fair complexion, large dark eyes, and long black 
hair. She spent her days as did the other peas- 
ants in caring for her flock. But somehow she 
seemed different from most girls. She cared little 
for amusement, but liked to steal away to the 
10 lonely, solemn woods. There sometimes in the still- 
ness she thought that she heard angel voices, and 
again in “her visions bright angels would appear and 
talk to her. So in caring for her sheep, in listening 
to the voices, and in saying her prayers in the vil- 
islage church, the life of Joan passed very quietly. 

At this time the French people were very un- 
happy, for they greatly disliked to have their beau- 
tiful country ruled by the English; and Joan often 
heard the peasants discussing the helpless condition 
20 of their young prince. This made her very sad, 
and she brooded much over his wrongs, and with 
her warm, tender spirit, she prayed that his throne 
might be restored to him. 

After a time, she began to feel that her voices 
26 were summoning her to assist Charles in gaining 
his rights. When, at last, she felt sure that God 
had really called her to do this thing, she was 
much perplexed how to accomplish it. 


329 


Remember that Joan was only a poor peasant, 
and you will see on the map that Domremy in 
Lorraine is hundreds of miles from Chinon on the 
Loire, where Charles was holding his court. Joan 
decided to go first to the governor of the nearest 
town, and as soon as possible she presented herself 
before him. She said that she had received a com- 
mand from her Lord, and asked the governor to 
aid her in obeying it. The governor said to Joan, 
“ Who is your Lord ? ” “ My Lord,” replied the 

maid, « is the King of Heaven. He has com- 
manded me to deliver Orleans and to have the 
dauphin crowned at Rheims.” 

The governor was greatly amused at the request 
of such a silly maid. Two knights were present, 
and they were impressed by Joan’s earnestness, 
and promised to conduct her to the prince. Joan 
was delighted. She returned to her home, and 
announced to her parents her glorious mission. 
Very naturally they thought that she was mad. 
However, Joan made ready, and accompanied by 
her brother and the two knights, she set out on 
her long journey. 

When news was brought to Charles that a maid 
was coming to assist him, he was very curious, 
and although his nobles objected, he determined 
to receive her. He said : “ I will assume the sim- 
plest dress and conceal myself in the midst of you. 


, 5 

1 10 

15 

20 

25 


330 


Dunois will dress in my robes and take my place. 
If she is sent of God, she will know which of us 
is king.” 

Joan was received by torchlight, the king and 
6 nobles standing in a row. She entered the hall, 
looked about her, and then went right up to 
Charles and knelt before him with great reverence. 
“I am not the king,” exclaimed Charles, and Joan 
replied : “ No, gentle prince, you and you only are 
10 the king. I am sent by God to bring you out, 
Orleans shall be delivered, and you shall be crowned 
at Rheims.” 

It is a strange fact which shows the supersti- 
tion of the age that both Charles and his nobles 
15 were inspired by Joan’s earnestness, and at once 
accepted her as a messenger from Heaven. 

Then Joan asked for a small body of troops, as 
she wished to go to the relief of Orleans. The 
king gave her a sacred embroidered banner, a 
20 retinue of knights, heralds, squires, and pages. 

Several generals offered her their swords, but 
these she refused to accept. 

She told them that in a certain church behind 
the altar would be found the weapon that could 
25 deliver France. 

The sword was sought and found, just as the 
maid had said. 

And now, equipped for battle and arrayed in a 


331 


suit of white armor, Joan started with her little 
army for Orleans. 

Joan entered Orleans in May, 1429. Her appear- 
ance filled the French with confidence and the 
English with fear. Indeed, from the very first, 
the English had believed her to be a witch. 

One day she seized a ladder, and climbing to the 
top of the wall, she planted the flag on the ram- 
parts. She was struck by an English arrow, and 
as she fell a shout of triumph rose from the Eng- 
lish camp ; but she sprang up and tore the arrow 
from the wound in her heart. Her soldiers rallied, 
and penetrating the enemy’s intrenchments obliged 
the English to flee. 

The siege of Orleans which had lasted for seven 
months was now raised in a few hours, and Joan 
of Arc at once became the « Maid of Orleans.” 

The next thing was to escort the king to Rheims, 
that, like all the kings before him, he might be 
crowned there in the cathedral. As the army 
went through the country, the English on all sides 
fled before them. 

An old chronicler tells us that while on the 
march, if the maid but struck the gates of a town 
with the handle of her banner, they at once flew 
open and the town surrendered. 

On reaching Rheims, Charles was crowned. 
During the ceremony Joan stood near, holding her 
banner unfurled. 


6 

10 

15 

20 

25 



JOAX OF ARC WOUNDED AT THE S EGE OF ORLEANS 



333 


« Now,” she exclaimed, when all was over, 

« I shall not regret to die.” 

A little later, feeling that her mission was ac- 
complished, she threw herself at the feet of the 
king, saying: “Permit me now to lay down my 5 
arms and return to my native village, to serve my 
father and mother in keeping my sheep. Oh, if 
you knew how my brothers and sisters would re- 
joice to see me once more among them ! ” 

The ungrateful king, however, insisted on herio 
remaining in the army. Joan lost heart a little, 
but tried to do good among the rude soldiers. 
They respected her, but grew tired and jealous of 
her presence among them. 

Scarcely a year had passed when one day, asi& 
Joan was assisting to defend the town of Com- 
jDiegne against the attacks of the Duke of Bur- 
gundy, she found herself outside the walls. 

Surrounded by a troop of archers, she parried 
their blows as she tried to reach the gates. One 20 
step more and she would be inside ; but the gates 
were shut and the drawbridge vras raisea. 

The jealous French soldiers had closed the gates 
against their deliverer. The Burgundians seized the 
maid, and gave her into the hands of the English. 25 
The English were annoyed at being so long de- 
fied by a girl, and even when she was in their 
own hands, they seemed afraid of her. 


334 


Her tragic fate was most pitiful. On May 31, 
1431, she was condemned as a heretic and witch 
and burned in the market-place at Rouen. It is 
said that after being tied to the stake she asked 
5 for a crucifix, and threw herself upon her knees in 
prayer, exclaiming, « Yes, my voices were from 
God; my voices have not deceived me.” 

To the very end she displayed a calm heroism. ^ 

Charles VII made no effort to save the maid ; 
10 but he ennobled her family and freed her village 
from taxes. 

A little later he entered Paris, a very different 
man from what he had been when Joan first ap- 
peared to him. 

15 He recovered everything but Calais from the 
English, and gave a better government to his dis- 
ordered country. 

It was the religious enthusiasm of the Maid of 
Orleans that had changed his title from « King 
20 of Bourges ” to “Charles VII, the Victorious of 
France,” as he is known to-day. 

The reverence for the historic maid has been 
increasing ever since her death, nearly five hundred 
years ago. Perhaps before long she will be canon- 
26 ized by the Pope, and then the simple peasant 
maid will become the venerated St Joan. 


335 


Marco Polo 

In the beginning of the thirteenth century 
Genghis Khan, the leader of a Mongul or Tartar 
tribe in northern Asia, conquered with his enor- 
mous army of horsemen the larger part of Asia 
and some lands in Russia. 

Thousands of cities and millions of lives were 
sacrificed to him, and his rule was so powerful 
that there was a saying, “ In Asia and Europe 
scarcely a dog might bark without Mongul leave.” 
Kubla Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, was a 
much more gentle man than his grandfather. He 
ruled over China or Cathay as it was then called. 

His magnificent capital or city of the khan was 
Cambaluc, now Peking. 

During his reign two gentlemen from Venice be- 
longing to the ancient Polo family visited the East. 
They were merchants, but they were adventurous 
explorers too. We cannot trace their long and 
difficult routes. Sometimes they turned aside to 
avoid a mountain or a desert or a river, or because 
they did not wish to pass through a country where 
war was raging. 

In due time, however, they arrived at the court 
of Kubla Khan, the « Lord of the Earth.” 

The khan had never before seen any Europeans 
and he welcomed them cordially, asking them 


5 

10 

15 

20 

25 





VENICE 





337 


many questions about their country. He gave 
them tablets of gold, such as were often presented 
to messengers, and sent them back to Rome to the 
Pope. 

He wished the Pope to send him one hundred 5 
missionaries, and some of the oil burning in the 
lamp which hangs dver the Holy Sepulcher at 
Jerusalem. Besides these, he wished the Polos to 
instruct him in the seven arts, which in those days 
formed a perfect education. These were arith- lo 
metic, astronomy, grammar, music, geometry, rhet- 
oric, and logic. 

The Polos could find but two missionaries ; they 
obtained the oil, but we are not sure about the 
seven arts. 15 

When the Polos were preparing to return to 
Cathay, Marco, the son of one of these nobles, now 
fifteen years old, begged that he might go with 
them. They all started, but it was not long before 
the two priests were so frightened by the perils of 20 
the way that they returned home. After sur- 
mounting man}^ dangers the Polos finally reached 
Cathay, and the khan was delighted to welcome 
them. He was pleased to receive the holy oil, but 
disappointed about the missionaries, for he was 25 
eager to introduce a new religion into his country. 

Young Marco Polo was a bright and observing 
lad. He learned the language, and he told a story 


2 


338 


well. Kubla Khan became very fond of him, and 
constantly employed him on missions to every part 
of his dominions. When Marco returned, he had 
always such a pleasant way of describing the 
6 curious cities and countries which he had seen that 
the khan listened to him with the greatest interest. 
He liked him far better than- his other messengers, 
for on their return they could talk only of the 
business on which they had been sent. 

10 Many years passed — full of wondrous sights 
and marvelous adventures for Marco Polo. 

The khan was growing old, and the Polos were 
anxious to go home to see their friends and to 
carry their treasures. But they all were useful to 
15 the khan, and he wished them to remain. Finally 
an opportunity offered, and the khan reluctantly 
gave his consent for them to depart. 

Our story now shifts to the beautiful Venice of 
that romantic and adventurous age. 

20 One day, in the year 1295, three sunburned inen, 
in shabby Tartar dress, appeared in the streets of 
the city. The Venetians gazed on them with curi- 
osity, and laughed them to scorn when the 
travelers told who they were. How could the 
25 people believe them to be the same Polos who liad 
gone so many years before into the land of dark- 
ness in the far East? 

The three men made their way through the city 


339 


to the gates of the handsome residence of the 
Polos, but we are not told how they succeeded in 
quickly gaining admittance. 

Shortly afterwards the Venetian nobles were 
summoned to a splendid feast in their grand 6 
palace. 

The guests were received by the three travelers 
arrayed in rich robes of crimson satin. At the 
beginning of the feast their robes were exchanged 
for crimson damask ones, and when they wereio 
taken otf, they were cut up and divided among the 
servants. 

Later in the feast the damask robes were ex- 
changed for those of crimson velvet, and the dam- 
ask ones were divided. At the close of the feast 16 
the velvet robes were taken olf and divided like 
the others, and now the three men appeared 
dressed like the rest of the company. 

After the meal, the servants having gone out, 
Marco Polo brought in the three shabby dresses. 20 
The guests recognized them as the ones in which 
the curious strangers had arrived. And now for 
the greatest surprise of all ! 

Sharp knives were taken, the coats were ripped 
open, and out rolled quantities of jewels of the 26 
greatest value, — diamonds, emeralds, rubies, and 
sapphires. 

These had been carefully stitched between the 


340 


linings that no one might suspect what the trav- 
elers carried. Then the Polos told their guests 
about their adventures in the far East, and how 
Kubla Khan had given them treasures in gold and 
6 stuffs which they could not carry. They had ex- 
changed all for precious gems. What a fascinating 
and bewildering entertainment ! 

The guests now recognized that their hosts were 
the Polos, and ever afterwards they treated them 
10 with the greatest honor. 

Two or three years later there was a war be- 
tween Venice and Genoa. Marco Polo fought, and 
was taken prisoner by the Genoese and put into 
prison. His fellow-prisoner was Rusticiano of 
15 Pisa, who, besides being a war-captain, was a 
clever writer. Marco Polo told Rusticiano about 
his wonderful adventures and the strange things 
which he had seen and heard, and Rusticiano 
wrote them on parchment and made a book which 
20 others copied. For many years copies of the book 
were very precious, even until printing was in- 
vented. 

In this book of travels Marco Polo describes 
wonderful things, among them a bird in Mada- 
25gascar so large that it can carry an elephant in 
its talons, and fine Persian horses able to travel 
one hundred and ten miles a day. He tells, too, 
of jugglers who can make dishes and cups of gold 


341 


fly through the air ; and of a sorcerer in the 
vale of Cashmere who had magic power over the 
weather and was able to bring rain and snow. 

In the book we learn that Marco Polo had been 
told that Noah’s ark was still on Mount Ararat in 5 
Armenia, but that the mountain was so covered 
with snow that no one could ever ascend to see it. 

He had seen the circular houses of the Tartars 
made of wands covered with felt. When the 
Tartars traveled, they filled their houses withio 
women and children and drew them along with 
oxen and camels. 

Many pages of the book are devoted to the 
magnificence of the court of Kubla Khan. Those 
who waited upon this lord had their mouths 15 
covered with napkins of silk and gold so that 
their breath might not taint the contents of a dish 
or goblet presented to the king. The khan’s 
most famous feast was on New Year’s Day. On 
this occasion he appeared in robes of beaten gold. 20 
Before the feast all the officials passed in review 
before the khan, bowing their faces four times to 
the floor. The palaces of Kubla Khan were most 
magnificent. In one of them six thousand people 
could dine. 25 

In the parks were trees of all kinds brought by 
elephants from all parts of the khan’s dominions. 
Rows of trees were constantly being planted, for 


342 


in Cathay there was an old saying, «He who 
plants trees lives long.” 

The whole book of Marco Polo is full of enter- 
tainment and amusement. It describes absurd 
5 things and true things, and gives us a curious 
glimpse into the early geography and customs of 
the people of Asia. It is one of the most impor- 
tant books of the Middle Ages. Difficult as it 
was to procure it then, we may find it now in 
10 every public library. 

Shortly after Marco Polo had told his tales to 
Rusticiano, and Rusticiano had preserved it for the 
world, peace was made between Genoa and 
Venice. 

15 Marco Polo went home and married and had 
three daughters. What interesting stories he must 
have told his children ! 

He lived to be an old man. Before his death he 
was asked to take back some of the strange 
20 things which he had reported, but he refused, 
saying : — 

« I have told the truth ! ” 

Vasco da Gama 

The warlike Turks had conquered western Asia 
and northern Africa, and the old routes from 
26 Europe to India passing through the Mediterranean 


343 


Sea and then to the south and east were no 
longer safe. The one desire now was to find a new 
path for commerce, else the magnificent trade with 
wealthy India must be lost to Europe. 

As we follow now the different ways over which 6 
the early adventurers sailed, let us keep before us 
a map of the world. What a blessing such a 
map would have been to the navigator of the 
fifteenth or sixteenth century as he looked out over 
the broad Atlantic Ocean and wondered which lo 
way he should steer! 

Columbus, as we know, tried to find India by 
sailing to the westward in 1492. When he dis- 
covered America, thinking it to be the land which 
he had sought, he called the native Indians. 15 
Although Columbus was a Genoese, he set sail 
from Portugal because this country from its 
situation formed a most convenient starting-point. 

The Portuguese were brave and bold, and 
instead of sailing westward, as Columbus did, 20 
they tried to reach India by going down the 
western coast of Africa. They carried with them 
stone pillars, each bearing the Portuguese coat-of- 
arms, and inscribed to some saint. These pillars 
were planted on prominent headlands when an 26 
expedition had reached its most distant point. 

Every adventurous captain tried to penetrate the 
mysterious sea a little farther than his predecessor, 


344 


that his pillar might be placed farther to the south. 
Finally the brave Bartholomew Diaz had the satis- 
faction of planting his pillar at the southern point 
of Africa, for he actually sailed around Cape Tem- 
5 pest. On his return to Lisbon, King Emanuel II, 
of Portugal, was so delighted that he changed the 
name of Cape Tempest to the Cape of Good Hope, 
because he felt that now he had ‘‘good hope” that 
his hardy sailors would soon reach India. As soon 
10 as possible the king fitted out a larger expedition, 
placing it under the command of a gentleman in 
his own household, “ the valiant Capitayne,” Vasco 
da Gama. Da Gama was the son of a magistrate of 
Lines, Portugal. He was now twenty-eight years 
15 old — a man of violent temper, but wise and 
courageous. He was delighted to conduct the fleet, 
even though his friends assured him that all would 
be drowned. 

Da Gama was given three ships and a store-ship, 
20 and they were manned by one hundred and sixty 
men. He sailed in the year 1498, carrying letters 
to the potentates of different countries, and also six 
pillars to be set up in new lands. As the fleet 
neared the Cape of Good Hope and as they sailed 
26 around it they were baffled by a very strong cur- 
rent. The sailors lost their courage, and falling on 
their knees they besought Da Gama to turn back ; 
but the intrepid leader put them in irons, while he 


SHIPS OF THE PERIOD 





346 


still continued his course over the stormy seas. On 
Christmas they passed a country which, in honor 
of the birth of Christ, they named Natal. 

Many of the natives along the coast were very 
5 hostile, and sometimes it was difficult to procure 
food. In one place, where the people were dressed 
in gay silks and jewels, they tried to cut his cable.' 
The king of Melinda, however, was most friendly. 
He lived in a fine town with broad streets and high 
10 houses, and he carried on an extensive trade with 
the East in stuffs and gems and perfumes. Here 
Da Gama set up one of the pillars, and the king 
gave him a pilot who understood both the mari- 
ner’s compass and the route to India. 

15 Now, turning to the northeast from Africa, 
Da Gama sailed over to India, landing at Calicut 
on the Malabar coast of Hindustan. Here a pillar 
was set up, and a little later the Portuguese kingdom 
in India became wealthy and powerful. Da Gama 
20 returned to Portugal after an absence of two years 
and two months.. He came in a boat which he 
had procured at Cape Verde, and he brought back 
but fifty-five men. One of his ships had been 
burned, one lost at sea, one condemned as not sea- 
25 worthy, and, in still another, one of his sailors had 
quietly slipped away, in order to be the first one to 
reach Portugal and tell the good news. On his 
return. Da Gama had a royal welcome from the 


347 


king. He had found the new water-way to India, 
and now trade could be established with' the far 
East. The king, in his gratitude, gave to him the 
proud title “Admiral of the Indian, Persian, and 
Arabian Seas.” 5 

Da Gama did not sail again until 1502, and this 
time, on his arrival in India, he struck terror to the 
hearts of the native rulers ; for, in demanding rights 
to trade, he did not hesitate to seize ports and to 
kill the natives. When he went back to Portugal lo 
from this second expedition, the king gave him the 
title, “ Count of Vidigueria.” 

After this, year by year, larger fleets were sent 
out, and they came home laden with the riches of 
the East. Da Gama, however, for twenty years is 
remained quietly at home with his family. He 
lived in a house on the walls of which were painted 
the flowers and animals which he had found in 
India. But 'in 1524 he was made viceroy of India 
by the king, John III. Then he sailed again; this 20 
time with a large fleet, and in great magniflcence. 
He established his government at Cochin, but he 
died soon after he was settled, on Christmas Day, 
1524, at the age of fifty-five. 

Da Gama’s portrait in Lisbon represents him as a 25 
stout man, with long'white beard, and with rather a 
severe expression, and dressed in a long furred robe. 

Columbus, Vasco da Gama, and Magellan form 


348 


a trio of bold voyagers, who, in the last part 
of the fifteenth century and the beginning of the 
sixteenth, sailed forth in search of adventure and 
new trading paths. They, in turn, were followed 
5 by others. Glowing reports were brought back 
to Europe of lands filled with silver and gold, 
of cities full of palaces and temples, and of the 
wonderful “Fountain of Youth.” Curiosity and 
the spirit of adventure grew stronger all the time, 
10 until the sixteenth century became famous as the 
age of great discovery. 

“ Now morn, serene in dappled gray, arose 
O’er the fair lawns where murmuring Ganges flows; 
Pale shone the wave beneath the golden beam ; 

15 Blue o’er the silver flood Malabria’s mountains gleam : 

♦The sailors on the maintop’s airy round, 

<Land ! land ! ’ aloud with waving hands resound; 
Aloud the pilot of Melinda cries, 

* Behold, 0 chief, the shores of India rise ! * 

20 Elate the joyful crew on tiptoe trod. 

And every heart with swelling rapture glow’d; 

Gama’s great soul contest the rushing swell. 

Prone on his manly knees the hero fell. 

<0 bounteous heaven! ’ he cries, and spreads his hands 
26 To bounteous heaven, while boundless joy commands 
No further word to flow.” 

— Camoens’s Lusiadf translated by Mickle. 


PART III. MODERN HISTORY 

Galileo 

The dark ages of mediaeval history are now past. 
With the end of the fifteenth century and the begin- 
ning of the sixteenth, modern history commences. 

Many great events mark the opening of this 
modern era. 

The mariner’s compass is improved, new routes 
of travel are followed, and worlds before unknown 
are discovered at their end. Gunpowder is in- 
vented. This will pierce the heaviest armor of the 
mediaeval knight and shatter the strongest walls of 
the mediaeval city. 

Printing, too, is invented. Books which had 
been slowly and carefully written on parchment by 
the monk in his cell are now quickly printed by 
movable type, and books find their way every- 
where. 

Then there is a revival of learning, and the Ref- 
ormation brings in Protestantism. A new theory 
is established about the solar system. Before this 
time it had been supposed that the sun revolved 
about the earth, but the astronomer, Copernicus, 
thought that the sun was the center, and that the 


5 

10 

15 

20 


350 


earth revolved about it. His views were called 
the “Copernican System.” 

Our first topics in modern history are Galileo, 
and his interest in this new theory, and the dis- 
Scoveries which he made in the heavens. 

Galileo was born at Pisa, in 1564. His parents 
were poor, but noble in rank. His father had 
intended that Galileo should be a trader in wool ; ’ 
but when he found that the boy loved study, he 
10 determined to give him an education and have him 
become a doctor. 

Galileo was a fine Greek and Latin scholar. His 
father did not wish him to devote much time to 
mathematics, fearing that this would be a hin- 
isdrance in the study of medicine. 

But Galileo liked geometry better than almost 
anything else, and studied it privately. He was 
very fond of drawing, always wishing to be a 
painter. He learned to play on the organ and lute, 
20 and excelled in style and touch. Later, when he 
was old, and blind, and sorrowful, his lute was his 
greatest solace. 

As a student, he was very earnest, thinking 
much for himself ; and his professors used some^ 
26 times to say that he was given to contradicting 
them, but from what we read about him we con- > 
elude that he really had more knowledge than 
those who taught him. 


351 


When Galileo was eighteen years old, he began 
to study medicine in the university at Pisa. He 
was always very ingenious in making little ma- 
chines. 

In the cathedral at Pisa there hung a great 
bronze lamp. Galileo carefully watched its oscilla- 
tions, aild thought that on the same principle he 
could make an instrument which would tell the 
exact rate and changes of the pulse, and he suc- 
ceeded. His instrument was not perfect, but it was 
considered a wonder by the doctors of the time 
and much used by them in counting the pulse of 
their patients. 

He used to go to tne top of the Leaning Tower 
and let fall from there unequal weights. Then he 
would explain to the interested people — who be- 
low were watching his experiments — that the 
difference in time between the fall of a feather and 
of a stone was due to the resistance of the air. 

He wrote such an excellent paper about gravity 
that he was made professor in the university. 

After Galileo’s father died in 1591, he was obliged 
to support his family, and so needed more money 
than his small salary allowed him. 

His genius had been discovered, and . the republic 
of Venice made him professor of mathematics in 
the University of Padua. 

He was glad to leave Pisa, because so many there 


5 

10 

15 

20 

25 


352 


disagreed with him in some of his ideas about 
scientific things. 

In Padua, he had many private pupils,. His lec- 
tures on science were so crowded that he would 
Soften give them in the open air. Indeed, Galileo 
grew more famous all the time. Even dukes and ' 
princes came to listen to him. 

In Padua, he became acquainted with the great 
scientist, Tycho Brahe. Sometime between 1593 
10 and 1597 Galileo began to believe fully in the 
Copernican theory. It had been thought to be a 
Bible truth that the sun revolved about the earth, 
and many considered it a wicked heresy to send our 
little earth spinning through space about the sun. 

15 They thought that Copernicus should not have 
dared to start such a theory, and that Galileo did 
very wrong to believe and preach it. 

In 1609, Galileo visited Venice, and there heard 
that a Dutchman had constructed an instrument 
20 which would make distant objects seem very near. 
He thought that he would try to invent something 
like it, and after going back to Padua, he made an 
instrument which magnified things three times. 
He presented this to the doge of Venice, and, in 
25 return, was given a larger salary and made pro- 
fessor for life. 

Later he made an instrument which magnified 
eight times, and then, finally, a telescope which 


353 


had the power of thirty. And now what wonders 
of the heavens were opened before him I 

He made his first observations on the moon and 
traced its unequal surface. Some thought that it 
was very wicked to scoop out valleys on the smooth 6 
face of the beautiful moon. 

Myriads of the stars in the Milky Way were 
revealed to him, forty stars in the Pleiades, and 
the satellites of Jupiter. He discovered spots on 
the sun and knew from their motions that the sunio 
must move also. 

In a letter, he writes of his gratitude to God, 
who had made him “ the first observer of marvel- 
ous things unrevealed to bygone ages. He affec- 
tionately called his telescope « old discoverer.” 15 
He wrote a book about his discoveries, but old 
astronomers would not believe it. One professor 
at Padua said that there were only seven metals, 
seven days in a week, seven apertures in a man’s 
head, and so ther^could be only seven planets. 20 
Even when he was forced to own that he could 
see satellites through the telescope, he said that if 
you could not see them without it, they were use- 
less and probably did not exist at all. These old 
astronomers seemed really to belong to mediaeval 25 
times when no one was. expected to advance any 
new theories. 

But the excitement was great, and nearly every- 


354 


body wished to possess a telescope. Rich and 
learned men felt proud to honor Galileo and to call 
him their friend. The grand duke of Tuscany in- 
vited him to Florence, and made him his philoso- 
5 pher and mathematician. 

And now, just as he had reached the height of 
his fame and prosperity, the malice of his enemies 
became dangerous. 

His belief in the Copernican idea that the earth 
10 went around the sun was a sufficient excuse for 
attacking him. He was charged with teaching 
that the sun is the center of the planetary system, 
and explaining the Scriptures to suit his own 
theory. 

15 He was brought before the Inquisition. This 
was a court which was summoned to question him 
very closely, and to decide whether he was right or 
wrong. 

His doctrines were called «« heresy ” because they 
20 were thought contrary to the words of the Scrip- 
tures. He was compelled to promise that never 
again by speech or writing would he try to prove 
that the earth moved around tlie sun. 

But later lie was greatly encouraged by the 
25 kindness of the Pope, and by the interest which 
the cardinals showed in his belief. So he seemed 
to forget his promise, and w^rote a book to defend 
his old views, in regard to the Copernican system. 


355 


4 


In some secret way he was successful in getting 
his book published. 

Then it was ordered by the Inquisition that he 
must be punished, for he had violated his prom- 
ise. So he was ordered in 1633 to appear in Rome. 5 
The complaint made against him was that he had 
been disobedient, and his plea was that he had for- 
gotten what he had promised. 

Then he was told that he must abjure his error ; 
next he was to be imprisoned, and to recite once aio 
week for three years the seven penitential Psalms. 
Clad in sackcloth and kneeling, Galileo swore upon 
the Gospels never again to teach that the earth 
went round the sun. Then rising, he is said to 
have exclaimed in an undertone, « It does move for 15 
all that ! ” 

He was confined during four days, and then, 
although really afterwards a prisoner of the Inqui. 
sition, he was permitted to return to his home in 
Arcetri, near Florence. 20 

Often he was hopeless, but always patient and 
resigned to his fate. Soon he suffered a great 
affliction, for he became totally blind. 

From- pity for his sorrows, the severity of the 
Inquisition grew less, and he was allowed to have 26 
constant visitors. Even a sovereign came to encour- 
age him. 

One day a young man with handsome face and 



QAI^IiEO EXPLAINS THE MOVEMENTS DP THE HEAVENLY BODIES TO THE POST 



857 


masses of silken auburn hair, and looking like a 
student, went to see him. This was John Milton, 
then twenty-nine years old, who was traveling in 
Italy, and who sought the old man to do him 
honor. 6 

‘ If we follow the life of this young visitor, we 
shall find that in the closing days of his life, he, 
too, was blind like Galileo, and like him endured 
pain and blame and danger. To Milton, also, at 
the last, came literary friends to cheer him on his lo 
way. 

We must remember Galileo for his industry. 
He was never for a moment seen to be idle. He 
was very fond of a country home and out-of-door 
life. He loved to work in his own vineyard. 15 

Galileo died on the 8th of January, 1642, and 
is buried in the church of Santa Croce, in Florence. 

This is the story of Galileo, the “ venerable hero 
of science.” We must not forget how earnestly 
,his keen mind and brave spirit tried to learn the 2C 
truth which Nature, that great teacher, has written 
for us in her wonderful book. 


William the Silent 

Holland, with its great dikes, its many flapping 
windmills, and its canals crossing it in every direc- 
tion, is a quaint and unique little country. 25 


358 


An old writer describes it as — 

A land that rides at anchor and is moored 
In which they do not live but go aboard.” 

The Hollanders have had two conflicts in history ; 
5 in the first they rescued their country from the sea, 
and in the second from the power of Spain. Holland 
has been the home of many brave heroes, one of 
the greatest of whom was William the Silent. 

In his time, Holland formed part of the Nether- 
10 lands. Charles I, king of Spain, ruled over this 
country, and William of Orange, a boy of fifteen, 
was in his service. 

Just before this, a monk, named Martin Luther, 
had established a new form of religion in Germany, 
15 and his followers, because they ^protested against 
Catholicism, were called Protestants. 

Charles I did not like this new “ heresy,” as it 
was named, so he sent inquirers or inquisitors 
around to ask who had accepted it, and to punish 
20 them for so doing. This inquiry was styled the 
Inquisition. We have read about it before in the 
life of Galileo. 

Charles I was very fond of William of Orange. 
It was on the arm of this handsome young noble- 
st man that he had leaned when, in 1555, he said his 
parting words to his people in the palace at 
Brussels. On the death of Charles I, Philip II, a 
cruel bigot, succeeded to the throne of Spain and 
to the government of the Netherlands. 


359 


The Netherlanders promised that they would do 
everything that he wished, if only he would keep 
his Spanish troops out of their country. 

Philip was furious. He did not like William of 
Orange, and felt sure that he was in a plot against 5 
him. He said to him, “ This was not done by the 
State, but by you, you, you ! ” 

France and Spain had been fighting together, 
and suddenly they made a treaty of peace. 
William did not know why. 10 

A little later he was in France, and one day 
when he was out hunting with Henry II, the king, 
Henry told him that France and Spain had given 
up fighting because they had determined to unite 
and crush out heretics. 15 

At this time William was a Catholic, but he 
was struck with horror at what was being planned 
for his Protestant countrymen. William, however, 
showed perfect self-control, not letting Henry II 
know by the movement of a muscle how the news 20 
affected him. But from that moment he began to 
plan how he might help his country, for William 
believed in perfect religious freedom. 

This incident is said to have given him the title, 

« William the Silent.” Usually he was anything 25 
but silent, for he was a bright and genial man who 
loved society and who entertained magnificently, but 
he had the rare gift of knowing when not to speak. 


360 


Philip II went home to Spain, but he sent 
his sister, Margaret of Parma, to govern the 
Netherlands. She brought with her so many 
Spanish soldiers that both Protestant and Catho- 
5 lie nobles were discouraged. Between three and 
four hundred of them determined to wait upon 
Margaret in Brussels, asking her for more freedom. 

Instead of coming on horseback, in splendid 
robes of silk and velvet, with gold and silver orna- 
lOments, they wei'e quietly dressed and walked to 
the hall, so as not to create a riot. Margaret re- 
ceived them very kindly, but showed a little agita- 
tion, and so one of her councilors exclaimed, 
Madame, are you afraid of a pack of beggars ? ” 
15 The nobles caught up tlie words. One of their 
number shouted : “ They call us beggars ! Let us 
take the name ! ” and they took it. 

“ Long live the Beggars ! ” was afterwards their 
watchword. Brederode, another noble, gave a 
20 banquet that night, and a wooden bowl filled with 
wine was passed around. Each Beggar drank to 
the health of all the Beggars. 

The Beggars adopted a costume of ashen gray 
cloth. They hung little wooden bowls around 
25 their necks or in their caps. 

All wore medals inscribed with the mottq 
“Faithful to the king, even to wearing the Beg- 
gar’s sack.” 





BREDERODE AT THE BANQUET OF THE BEGGARS 



362 


There were noble Beggars, wild Beggars, and 
water Beggars. 

Now followed a desperate struggle for civil and 
religious liberty. 

5 William of Orange seemed to feel that, like 
Joan of Arc, he was called from heaven to aid his 
country, and the more serious the need, the braver 
he grew. 

He was not a good fighter, but a splendid states 

10 man. The Dutch were very fond of him. They 
adopted his colors — orange, white, and blue — foi 
their badge. William sold his jewels and fur- 
niture to get money to raise an army. 

Philip II of Spain sent against Holland his 

16 best generals, the duke of Alva, Don John of 
Austria, Requesens, and the duke of Parma ; but 
William of Orange defended his country against 
them all, and became the ‘‘Founder of Dutch 
Liberties.” 

20 William had great influence over the “ Beggars 
of the Sea.” One of the heroic nobles. Count 
Egmont, had been killed, and the Beggars had 
vowed that their hair should not be cut until his 
death was avenged. 

26 Many times in their small, light boats, they 
gained victories over the great Spanish galleons. 

The most terrible events of the war were the 
sieges of Haarlem in 1572, and of Leyden in 1573. 


363 


The Netherlanders were shut up in Haarlem for 
seven months. Their food gave out, and they had 
to eat shoe-leather, grass and weeds, dogs, cats, and 
mice* The women as well as the men assisted on 
the walls and at the gates of the city. 6 

Three hundred women formed a battalion. 
They were drilled in the use of picks and spades 
and swords and muskets. They fought desper- 
ately* At last Haarlem was obliged to surrender. 
The Spanish entered the city, and a terrible 10 
slaughter followed. 

Beautiful Leyden, with its orchards and gardens, 
was next surrounded by the Spaniards. For five 
months, the only communication which the people 
had with the outside world was by carrier-pigeons. 16 
William of Orange sent them into the city with 
messages to the people, begging them to keep their 
courage, and they tried hard to do so, in spite of 
famine and terrible pestilence. 

Finally William, feeling that he would rather 20 
give the land to the sea than to the Spaniards, had 
the dikes broken down, for he said, “Better e 
drowned land than a lost land.” 

He roused the water Beggars to prepare to save 
the city. 25 

The gaunt, long-haired, and scarred sailors made 
ready a fleet of two hundred flat-bottomed boats, 
and waited. 


864 


And now the sea must fight for Holland. One 
night a tempest came, and the waters rushed with 
force over the coast. 

A favoring wind sprang up, and the ships were 
6 borne over trees and houses, right to the walls of 
the city. 

The startled Spaniards, in danger from both flood 
and fleet, scattei'ed in such a hurry from their en- 
campment outside the city that they left a great pot 
10 boiling, full of meat and vegetables, for their dinner. 

Food was brought to the starving inhabitants of 
Leyden by the Beggars who dashed into the city. 

Leyden was saved ! 

The happy people flocked to the cathedral to 
15 pour out their thanksgiving to God. Prayer was 
offered, and they tried to sing a hymn, but they 
could only weep tears of gratitude. 

To-day, in Leyden, we may see the faithful 
pigeons, stuffed and carefully preserved ; the pot 
20 which the Spaniards left in their haste; and the 
flags which were won so bravely by the « Beggars 
of the Sea.” 

The honored University of Leyden was built as a 
thanksgiving offering for the deliverance of the 
25 city. 

In the year 1579, by the treaty of Utrecht, seven 
of the northern provinces of the Netherlands united 
under William of Orange. 


365 


Philip II had sent his most skilled generals 
against William, and he had tried to bribe him, 
but in spite of his efforts, Holland grew stronger 
and more united all the time. Philip now felt 
that the only thing left for him to do was to offer 6 
a reward to any one who should kill William. 

Several unsuccessful attempts were made upon 
William’s life. 

Finally, having been elected Count of Holland, 
he went to Delft to be inaugurated. lo 

On the tenth day of July, 1584, just as he was 
leaving his dinner-table, he was fatally shot by an 
assassin. The murderer, Balthasar Gerard, had 
gained entrance under the pretense of securing a 
passport to leave the country. 15 

William had tried hard to live up to his motto, 

“ Always tranquil amid the waves.” 

Early in his life he was a Catholic, and during 
his later years, a Protestant, but he strove always 
for the political and religious freedom of his 20 
country. He won the admiration of all classes. 
His people were very fond of him, and called him 
Father William.” At his sudden death, there 
was intense grief — even little children cried in 
the streets. 

William was buried with great honor in Delft. 26 
In his character we find many noble traits. 

His devotion, to Holland and brilliant service in 


366 


her time of need made his name one of those most 
honored in the history of the sixteenth century. 

After William’s death, the Hollanders still con- 
tinued the struggle with courage and fury ; until, 
5 in 1648, Spain was obliged to acknowledge the 
perfect independence of Holland. 

Dutch art grew with Dutch liberty in the seven' 
teenth century.' 

The subjects that the painter loved best to im' 
lOmortalize were the faces of the brave men who 
took part in the hard fight for freedom. 

You will find the Dutch galleries full of their 
portraits, each man looking as if he was doing his 
part in the defense of his fatherland. 


Gustavus Adolphus 

15 There were in the sixteenth and seventeenth 
centuries many conflicts between the Protestants 
and Catholics before freedom of worship was estab- 
lished. 

The last great struggle which took place in Ger- 
20 many was called the Thirty Years’ War, because it 
lasted from 1618 to 1648. 

There were famous leaders in this war. Those 
that are the best known are Gustavus Adolphus on 
the Protestant side, and Tilly and Wallenstein on 
26 the Catholic. Gustavus Adolphus was the king of 


367 


Sweden. This is the most northern country from 
which we have chosen a hero. 

Gustavus Adolphus was born in Stockholm, the 
capital of Sweden, in the year 1594. From a child 
he never seemed to be afraid of anything. 5 

When he was seven years old, he went with his 
father, Charles IX, on an expedition against Fin- 
land. When they came back, the vessels were 
stuck fast in the ice, and they had to travel on 
foot, and little Gustavus bore the journey bravely. 10 
. Charles IX knew that his boy must sometime 
take his place as king, and so, when very young, 
he began to teach him about state affairs. 

Fortunately Gustavus Adolphus was very much 
interested, and he would often amuse the courtiers I 6 
by asking learned questions about sieges and bat- 
tles. He loved to study, and he understood four 
languages. He also played on the lute and wrote 
sonnets. 

Charles IX was very religious, and he said that 20 
his son must do the following things: reverence 
God, honor his parents, love his brothers and sis- 
ters, treat his subjects kindly, love the good, and 
punish the wicked. 

It was well that Charles IX trained his son so 25 
carefully, for he died when the boy was but seven- 
teen years old ; and then, in 1610, Gustavus Adol- 
phus succeeded to the throne. 


368 


During the first years of his reign, Gustavus 
Adolphus was engaged in some frontier wars witli 
Denmark and Russia, and a little later the Thirty 
Years’ War broke out in Germany. 

5 This he watched with great interest. He was a 
very strong Protestant, and he thought that he 
would like to go to Germany and fight. Oxen- 
stiern told the king that it was his duty to remain 
at home and govern his own kingdom. 

10 But the Protestants of northern Germany begged 
him to come over and help them, and he felt that 
he could not resist the temptation. 

He left Oxenstiern in command of Sweden. Be- 
fore starting, he took his little daughter, Christina, 
15 four years old, in his arms, and presented her to 
his Estates. He asked the nobles to swear alle- 
giance to her as their future sovereign. Then he 
bade them all farewell and sailed away, never to 
return. 

20 It will be well now to follow on your map the 
route which Gustavus Adolphus took. 

After a stormy passage, he landed with his army 
on the coast of Pomerania, in northern Germany. 

Ferdinand II, emperor of Germany, was a 
26 Catholic, and he was alarmed to hear that the 
king of Sweden had arrived to help the Protes- 
tants. 

He called Gustavus AdolphuS the “ Snow King,” 


369 


and was sure that he would melt as he traveled 
south. 

The Protestants, however, who appreciated his 
friendliness in coming, called him the Lion of 
the North.” Gustavus Adolphus wished to relieve 5 
Magdeburg, one of the strongest Protestant cities 
of Germany. 

This was now besieged by Tilly and the fierce 
Walloons. 

Gustavus Adolphus could not reach it. Tilly 10 
took it, and it was plundered and then burned to 
ashes ; for Tilly said that his soldiers must have 
some reward for all their toil and danger. There 
were many battles in this war gained by both 
Protestants and Catholics, for all the Germans 15 
were interested in one side or the other. 

The most famous battles were fought at Leipsic 
and Liitzen. 

Gustavus Adolphus and Tilly faced each other 
at Leipsic in 1630. 20 

Gustavus Adolphus was a large, sturdy man. 
His dress was a buff leather jerkin, and he wore a 
green feather in his small hat. 

Tilly was a small man. He wore a long green 
satin jacket and a red feather in his high-cocked 26 
hat. He was proud in having been victor in thirty- 
six battles. 

Tilly was brave, honest, and fierce. He formed 


TTl,l,Y CALLS FOR THE SURRENDER OP MAGDEBUBO 








371 


a just view of Gustavus Adolphus when he said 
that in fighting with him, “ Not to have lost was 
to have won a great deal.” 

Tilly had threatened Leipsic with the fate of 
Magdeburg, if it did not surrender. He took his g 
place on his well-known white horse, in the center 
of his army, — that army which had fought under 
him in every battle for twenty years, and which 
always raised a cry of joy when Father Tilly rode 
to the front. lo 

Gustavus Adolphus, too, marched to Leipsic 
and approached Tilly, and drew out his army in 
full battle array. He told his musketeers not to 
fire until they could See the whites of the ene- 
mies’ eyes. is 

The charge was made, the battle fought, and 
Tilly defeated. Six hundred of his soldiers formed 
a ring around their brave old leader wlio had met 
his first defeat, and they bore him wounded from 
the battle-field. And now Gustavus Adolphus 20 
pushed down into the very center of Germany. 
Tilly again disputed his passage, and was defeated 
and fatally wounded. 

After this Gustavus Adolphus held a splendid 
court at Mayence, and he was, also, for a time in 25 
Nuremberg. He was visited by his queen and by 
Oxenstiern. He had gained much power over the 
Protestants, and was happy in his success. 


372 


His battle-cry was “ God with us ! ” and he had 
daily prayers in his camp. It seems unusual to 
have been so fond of both war and religion; but 
the two things with which we always associate 
sGustavus Adolphus are fighting and praying. 

Tilly was dead, but there was another great 
general for Gustavus Adolphus to meet. He was 
such a remarkable man that we must stop right 
here and describe him. 

10 His name was Wallenstein, and he was one of 
the strangest men in history. He belonged to a 
wealthy Bohemian family, and had been restless 
and unruly all his life. He had been fighting in 
the Thirty Years’ War, on the side of the Catho- 
15 lies, with his own independent army. He had paid 
his soldiers by allowing them to plunder the 
country through which they passed, and as we 
may imagine, that country became a desert. 

“ God help the land to which these men come ! ” 
20 was a common exclamation. 

He governed his soldiers severely, but rewarded 
them splendidly. He had offended the clergy and 
nobles because he had assumed so much power. 
Finally, such stories of pillage and suffering 
26 were brought from the peasants to Ferdinand II 
that he dismissed Wallenstein, now duke of Fried- 
land. 

Wallenstein received the message calmly and 



THB TOWta 'iXUM F&AOUik 








374 


retired with great pomp to Prague. He felt sure 
that the emperor would need him again. 

. In his palace at Prague his court was of fabu- 
lous magnificence, much more regal than that of 
6 most kings of his time. His table was spread 
every day for many guests. Nobles and pages 
were alwa^^s in waiting. Chains were stretched 
across near his palace that nothing might approach 
to disturb his Majesty. He wore a dress of scar- 
10 let, with a long red feather in his hat. In his 
religion, he was neither Catholic nor Protestant, 
but he trusted in astrology. This was the belief 
that his fate was governed by the stars. Up in 
the astrological tower, his mysterious astrologer, 
isSeni, every night watched the movements of the 
heavenly bodies, to discover what his solemn, mel- 
ancholy master was next to do. 

Wallenstein had fought, as we have said, in 
the Thirty Years’ War; but at the time of Tilly’s 
20 death, he -was living at Prague, watching the war 
with great interest. And now the emperor sent 
for him, for he needed his assistance. 

Wallenstein was not surprised, and received the 
command coldly. He would not go back unless all 
25 the troops as before were placed under his com- 
mand. Ferdinand II knew that it was too much 
power to give to one man, but he was obliged to 
yield. 


3T5 


So Wallenstein, with numerous attendants, and 
one hundred carriages, traveled through the coun- 
try in great state. Gustavus Adolphus and Wal- 
lenstein drew near to each other and remained 
inactive. Finally, in 1632, their armies met on 5 
the battle-field of Leipsic. The contest was fear- 
ful, raging it is said for nine hours, and so wildly 
that history has no very exact account of it. 

In the thick of the fight, a fog settled over the 
armies. Gustavus Adolphus missed his way, audio 
was surrounded by the enemy, and mortally 
wounded. A soldier came up and demanded who 
he was. He replied, “ I wm the king of Sweden!” 
Then he was shot dead. 

His brave white horse dashed riderless ahead, 15 
proclaiming that its master was gone. The 
Swedes, maddened by their loss, rushed impetu- 
ously forward, and recovered the body of their 
bold leader. 

The fog came down again and put an end to 20 
the battle. 

The Stone of the Swede,” on the battle-field 
of Liitzen, marks the spot where Gustavus Adol- 
phus fell. 

Both Protestants and Catholics have always 25 
claimed the victory at Liitzen. To the Swedes, it 
brought grief rather than joy, for it resulted in the 
death of their beloved king. 


376 


Gustavus Adolphus was buried in Stockholm. 
Over his marble tomb the tattered flags tell of 
hard-fought victories for Protestantism. 

And what was the end of the mysterious 
6 Wallenstein ? 

He was finally assassinated in trying to betray 
his country. 

After the death of these three great leaders, 
the war dragged on for some time longer, and 
fo was one of the most desperate recorded in history, 
for such pillage had been allowed. 

When it began, Germany was full of cities. At 
its close, many of them were but charred ruins; 
and parts of the country were like a desert. 

15 Finally, in 1648, the peace of Westphalia was 
made, by which both Protestants and Catholics 
were allowed religious freedom. 


Peter the Great 

In reading the life of the Czar Peter, we should 
keep the map of Russia before us. Then we may 
20 better understand what great changes he made m 
his country. 

When he came to the throne, Russia, or Mus- 
covy as it was then called, was a huge, unformed 
territory. The Swedes owned the western part^ 
25 the Tartars, the southern part. There was one 


377 


seaport, Archangel, on the north, and it was frozen 
over much of the year. 

Peter was born in 1672. He was a bright-eyed 
boy who was always busy. He loved to invent 
fireworks and to play soldier. Indeed, his little 5 
regiment and fort were the beginning of the 
Russian navy. He was only ten years old when, 
with an invalid brother who died a few years 
later, he ascended the throne. 

Peter was governed by an older sister, Sophia. 10 
She wished to hold all the power, and so gave her 
little brother foolish companions and no education. 

When he was very young, Peter had a fright 
about the water and could not bear to go near it. 
He determined to conquer this feeling. As he 15 
always accomplished what he set out to do, he 
soon liked to paddle in the water better than 
anything else. 

When Peter was sixteen years old, he found, 
stored away in the court of a summer palace built 20 
by his grandfather, an English boat. He had it 
repaired, and sailed it constantly up and down 
one of the little rivers on which Moscow is 
situated. 

Moscow, Peter’s home, was like a real Eastern 26 
city. Its center was crowned with the picturesque 
fortress of the Kremlin. Thousands of domes, 
spires, and minarets were there, glittering in 


378 


every color. The city presented a fantastic look. 
Through its streets the long-bearded, long-robed 
merchants walked. 

Moscow was governed, as was the country 
6 around, by the Strelitz, a turbulent band of 
armed men, who, at their pleasure, usually made 
or put down sovereigns. 

When Peter was seventeen years old, he fully 
realized that Sophia was trying to get all the 
10 power ; so he seized the throne, and put her into 
a convent. He next wished to civilize his country. 

One of his best friends was Lefort, a foreigner 
from Switzerland. He was a young man who had 
traveled and observed much. He saw how igno- 
16 rant and barbarous the Russians were, and how 
necessary it was that Peter should get some idea 
of the arts and sciences of Europe, and he helped 
him in many ways. 

Lefort also brought to Peter’s notice a boy, to. 
90 whom Peter later intrusted all the affairs of state. 
And this is how it came about. A fair-faced, 
barefoot boy sold pies in the streets of Moscow. 
Lefort was attracted by his sweet voice. He called 
to him one day and asked him to sell him both 
26 pies and basket. The boy replied that he could 
sell the pies, but that the basket belonged to his 
master. Lefort was so struck with his appear 
ance that he took him into his house, and when 


379 


the Czar visited Lefort, the boy served at the 
table. 

Peter was charmed with him, and received him 
as a page into his own household. He employed 
him on secret missions, took him everywhere on t 
his journeys, and Menzikotf, the barefoot boy, 
became in turn a statesman, a general, a governor, 
and finally a prince of the emperor. 

When Peter became Czar he felt that he must 
have a fleet, for he had a great empire with noio 
way to get out of it. First, he would try for a 
southern port. So he sailed down the Don River 
and attacked Azov, and won it from the Tartars. 
He now sent his nobles to different countries of 
Europe, and he went himself to Holland to learn 15 
the art of shipbuilding. He hired himself as a 
day-laborer to Mynheer Calf, a rich shipbuilder. 

If you visit Holland to-day, you may see the 
little house containing the two rooms in which he 
lived, slept, cooked, and mended his clothes, and 20 
the cupboard into which he crawled to sleep. The 
Dutch, in order to preserve the. house, have built 
an inclosure around it. 

Once when the Duke of Marlborough, from Eng- 
land, visited the dockyard, he saw Peter, the ruler of 25 
Russia, seated on a log, in dark trousers, red woolen 
shirt, and sailor hat, and with an adze in his hand. 
He was talking violently with some people. 



PETER THE GREAT 




881 


Peter was a quick-tempered, restless, boisterous, 
young fellow, always asking the Dutch how they 
did things. They called him « Master Peter.” He 
did not leave Holland until he could build a fifty- 
gun ship. • 6 

From Holland, Peter went to England. He was 
received very kindly by King William III. A fine 
apartment had been prepared for him in London ; 
but he preferred to live right down by the Thames 
iliver, that he might study the English navy and 10 
dockyards. 

He visited Oxford University, but was too timid 
to go into Parliament, though he peeked at the 
assembly through a crack. He was greatly sur- 
prised to see so many lawyers in England. He said 15 
that he had but two at home, and intended to hang 
one as soon as he went back. 

Before he left England, he drew from his pocket 
something wrapped in brown paper and presented 
it to King William III. This proved to be a ruby 20 
of great value. 

In both Holland and England, he studied many 
other things besides shipbuilding. He learned to 
draw teeth, and provided himself with surgical 
instruments. He visited hospitals and woolen fac-25 
tories. He gathered persons representing various 
crafts to go to Russia, promising them that if they 
would go and teach his subjects to build fleets, cut 


382 


canals, manufacture cloth, and do other things, and 
make his country like the rest of Europe, he would 
pay them well. 

On his way home he heard in Vienna of a revo- 
slution of the Strelitz, led by ♦his sister Sophia. 
He went back at once, and slaughtered so many of 
them that we never again hear of the Strelitz in 
Russia. Next he made a law that his people 
should cut off their long beards, loose sleeves, and 
10 long full skirts. If they objected, a tax must be 
paid ; only the clergy were exempt. 

Patterns of European clothes were hung up at 
the city gates, that the people might know how 
they were expected to dress. 

16 The beginning of the year was now changed 
from September to January. Peter established 
schools and a postal system, built factories, roads, 
and canals, and opened mines. 

In striving to make his country really European, 
20 he interested himself in the minutest detail; for 
instance, among the other Dutch things which he 
brought to Russia were bread-makers and butter- 
makers and basket-makers — and even cats ! 
Peter, however, did not know how to fight. 

26 Sweden, at this time, w^as ruled by Charles XII, 
who is called in history the ‘‘ Madman of the 
North,” and who certainly was a very strange 
king. At this time, in the year 1700, he was just 


383 


eighteen years old. He loved war and knew how 
to fight, and he had skilled and brave soldiers. 

Charles XII, at the head of an army of nine 
thousand men, attacked Peter at Narva, with an 
army of sixty thousand. The battle of Narva was 6 
fought in a blinding snowstorm. 

Peter was terribly defeated. He said afterwards 
that, at first, he expected the Swedes to win, but 
that they had taught him how to fight. When he 
returned to Moscow, he had some of the church lo 
bells melted into cannon balls. He wished to con- 
quer the Swedes, for he was anxious to own lands 
on the Baltic Sea, and he gained some small 
victories. 

Once, in capturing a town in Livonia, Menzikoff 6 
was interested in a weeping peasant girl whose hus- 
band had just been killed. She was a helpless and 
beautiful widow, sixteen years old. Menzikoff took 
her home, and later Peter married her, and the 
peasant mother became Catherine, Czarina of 20 
Russia. 

Peter had determined to build a new capital city 
to be named after himself — Petersburg. The site 
which he selected was on a marsh. The workmen 
carried earth in their aprons to fill it up. Whole 25 
forests of trees were sunk in it. Every cart and 
boat that passed was obliged to carry a certain 
quantity of stone, gravel, or brick to throw into it. 


384 


One hundred thousand workmen are said to have 
perished; but although the workmen died, the 
work was carried on. The city was quickly built ; 
the government was removed there, and St. Peters- 
burg remains to-day the splendid capital of Russia. 

Charles XII of Sweden now again appeared. 
He had won such marvelous victories that he felt 
that he could conquer any one. He marched into 
Russia, sending word to Peter that he would treat 
10 with him at Moscow. 

This time, however, Peter proved the stronger. 
He burned towns and villages, right in the path 
of Charles, and the “ Madman of the North ” 
never reached Moscow. Finally, he laid siege tc 
16 Pultowa. 

In the year 1709, he was defeated there, his 
army annihilated, and he fled to Turkey. 

In 1721, a treaty was made with Sweden, by 
which Russia took possession of a large strip of 
20 land on the Baltic Sea. In honor of this victory, 
Peter was called « The Great,” and the « Father of 
his Country,” and Russia became one of the Great 
Powers of Europe. When, later, Peter sailed down 
the Volga, and took possession of the Caspian 
26 Sea, he proudly felt that now his navy might sail 
freely on any of the seas which surround Russia. 
Once again he made the tour of Europe. This 
time he took Catherine with him. He was quietly 


385 


dressed, but his manners were rude. Catherine 
was stout and clad in gay costume. 

She wore so many chains and relics that her 
coming was always heralded by a sound like that 
of many little bells. 6 

Perhaps the worst thing in Peter’s life was his 
condemning to death his son Alexis. The boy 
was very disobedient, and Peter did not wish 
him as successor to the throne. But Alexis died, 
perhaps of fright, before the sentence of death lo 
could be carried out. 

In thinking of Peter’s life, we cannot fail to 
see how much he did toward helping Russia to 
become a civilized European power. 

In the year 1725, he died of a fever, brought oni6 
by exposure, in hurrying to aid in the rescue of 
some shipwrecked sailors in the gulf of Finland. 

In St. Petersburg to-day, we may see the cabin in 
which Peter lived while he was building his new 
capital. In this is preserved the little ship* which 20 
he found in the court of his grandfather’s palace, 
and which has proved to be the ‘‘ grandsire ” of 
the Russian fleet. 

On the great Admiralty Square in St. Petersburg, 
stands a colossal equestrian statue of Peter. He 25 
is seated on a spirited horse, with scepter in hand, 
proudly gazing over the superb city which he 
founded. 




386 



TH£ BASTIIiB. PABIS 


The French Revolution 

« After us the deluge ! ” shouted the indolent, 
pleasure-loving Louis XV of France. 

He enjoyed his extravagant, luxurious court; 
he woilld enjoy it to the end of his life — then let 
6 the ruin come ! Louis XIV, also, had spent too 
much on his court, his great w^ars, and his beauti- 
ful palace at Versailles. Indeed, many of the kings 
of France had wasted money ; and now, in the 
eighteenth century, the country was burdened 
10 with a terrible debt. And the pity of it all was 
that the nobles and clergy would not pay for their 
pleasures, but forced their people to give the money, s 


387 


The peasants were wretched and starving. They 
had scanty earnings at the best, and much had to 
be given to support the court. They were com- 
pelled to labor on roads, and bridges, and other 
public works without reward, and also to pay four 6 
times a year a tax on salt, which was called the 
gabelle. 

They lived on black bread, roots, and water. 
Their corn must be ground at the lord’s mill, and 
their bread baked in the lord’s oven. They must lo 
pay whatever was demanded for their privilege. 
Worst of alt, the serfs were bought and sold with 
the land. 

Besides all this, there was a dreadful prison in 
Paris. If any one dared complain of the evils of 15 
the government, it was easy at once to silence him 
in the gloomy dungeons of the Bastile. 

The French writers of the time knew the 
wretched condition of the court. They wrote 
about liberty, and tried to inspire the people with 20 
the idea that they might assert themselves and get 
their rights. 

About this time the Americans across the water 
were declaring their independence ; why should 
not the people of France do the same? ^5 

Finally Louis XV, tired of pleasure and de- 
spised by his people, died in 1774. He was suc- 
ceeded by his gentle grandson, Louis XVI. 



38S 


THE HALL OF MIRRORS, VERSAILLES 




389 


Is it a wonder that Louis XVI and Marie Antoi- 
nette were overpowered with the responsibility 
of being king and queen ? When the courtiers 
brought them word that they were to reign, they 
fell on their knees and prayed, « God guide us and 5 
protect us, for we are too young to govern ! ” 

Louis XVI was a kind, well-meaning young 
man, but shy and awkward. His brilliant and 
thoughtless . girl queen was a daughter of Maria 
Theresa. At first, the people liked them both ; lo 
but later, they complained that the king was 
weak and Marie Antoinette extravagant. 

Louis summoned his ministers to his court. 
Each one proposed a different way to meet the 
great debt. Nothing, however, was accomplished ;i5 
for the nobles were furious at the slightest sugges- 
tion that they should be taxed. 

Something had to be done. It was finally sug- 
gested that the States General should be assembled, 
and it met at Versailles, on the 5th of May, 1789.20 
This was a body of men composed of the nobles, 
clergy, and the Third Estate,” as the representa- 
tives of the people were called. It had not met 
for one hundred and seventy-five years ; for in all 
this time the nobles and clergy had decided every* 2S 
thing without consulting the people. Now a 
storm}' debate commenced between the three 
parties, but they could not agree about anything. 


390 


At last the people declared themseUes the 
National Assembly. They invited the nobles and 
clergy to deliberate with them, and declared that 
if they refused, they would themselves decide about 
t. public affairs. 

Louis XVI now determined to interfere. He 
announced a royal sitting. The people were kept 
waiting in the rain, until the nobles and clergy 
were seated. Then, much disgusted, they entered 
10 the room. The king blamed them for what they 
had done, and said that he would dismiss them, if 
they opposed him. After this, all were told to 
retire. The nobles and clergy obeyed ; but the 
people kept their seats and again were told to go. 
15 Then their leader, the fiery Mirabeau, replied. 

Go and tell your master that we are here by the 
will of the people, and nothing but the bayonet 
shall drive us hence ! ’’ This was the beginning of 
the French Revolution. The “ deluge ” had come ! 
20 Paris was in a state of great excitement. Crowds 
gathered, and a cry was raised, “On to the Bastile!” 

A maddened crowd of men, women, and children 
surged through the streets, gathering in numbers as 
they went. They reached the grim old fortress, 
25 and after four hours of desperate fighting, the 
walls gave way. It was razed to the ground, and 
the prisoners were set free. 

This was on the fourteenth day of July, 1789, 


391 


and ever since, the anniversary has been celebrated 
in Paris. It is the birthday of French liberty, as 
the Fourth of July is the birthday of American 
liberty. 

When Louis XVI, at Versailles, heard that the 6 
Bastile had fallen, he exclaimed, “Why, this is a 
revolt ! ” “ Sire,” was the reply, « it is a revolu- 

tion ! ” 

Insurrection was now everywhere over the land. 
Peasants were burning castles or were marching lo 
through the streets of Paris, demanding bread. 
The nobles and clergy gave up their titles and 
privileges, and many fled from the country. 

One day, in 1789, there came a rumor to Paris 
that the king and queen were giving a banquet at 16 
Versailles, and that the people’s emblem, the tri- 
colored cockade, had been trampled underfoot. 

The people were again roused, and a hungry rab- 
ble, composed largely of women, ran from Paris to 
Versailles, a distance of ten miles. They carried 20 
clubs and knives, and as they ran they shouted for 
bread. 

They poured into the park, and into the palace 
itself, through the beautifully gilded salon, and up 
the marble staircase. They called for the queen. 26 
She appeared on the balcony, holding her little son 
by the hand. 

Lafayette tried to dismiss the enraged people. 


392 


but they would not return to Paris unless tlu 
. royal family went with them. 

So the family made ready, entered a coach, and 
were escorted all the way by the savage crowds, 
6 who shouted wuldly, “We shall not die of hunger 
now, for we have the baker and his wife and boy ! ” 
The royal captives were conducted to the Tuile- 
ries and guarded there. The two children were 
terrified and exhausted. The next morning the 
10 little dauphin, six years old, exclaimed, “ Oh, 
mother, is to-day yesterday again ? ” 

The king begged Marie Antoinette to take the 
children to a place of safety. But she would not 
be induced to leave her husband, and bravely said, 
16 “ I am the daughter of Maria Theresa, and have 
learned not to fear death.” Later, some friends in 
Paris planned an escape for the whole family. 

It was arranged that they were to leave the city, 
go by post to the frontier, and there be met by an 
20 escort that would convey them out of France. 

When all was arranged, they stole out at night 
in disguise from the palace. They entered the 
coaches in waiting, and started. The queen took 
the part of a German baroness, returning with her 
26 two children from Paris to Frankfort. The king 
acted as valet, and Princess Elizabeth as waiting- 
maid. Three attendants were with them. 

After driving for several miles, they were obliged 


393 


to stop for repairs, and again for a relay of fleet 
horses which were waiting to carry them onward. 

Each mile brought them nearer the frontier ; one 
hour more and they would be safe ! 

The king put his head out of the window, and 6 
in an agitated voice asked about the road. A ■ 
postmaster recognized him, but did not show any 
surprise. Instead, he galloped quickly to Varennes 
and gave the alarm. The royal party drove on, 
unconscious of what awaited them. lo 

They reached Varennes, and were met by a 
guard who captured them. 

Here, in a tallow-chandler’s shop, the weeping 
queen begged the woman to help them in escap- 
ing; while Louis, who never felt their sufferings 15 
so deeply as his wife, called for refreshments. He 
enjoyed his meal, and told the chandler that his 
wine v/as really very good. The captives were 
taken back to Paris, and again placed in the Tuile- 
ries, and watched even more carefully than before. 20 
Revolutionary parties now controlled everything. 
The most famous of these were the Girondists and 
the Jacobins. 

Bands were brought from different cities to. in- 
spire the mob with songs of liberty. The one 25 
from Marseilles brought a song, the « Marseillaise,” . 
that became very famous. 

It has fired the hearts of the French with the 

2d 


394 


thought of freedom from the time of the Revolu- 
tion until to-daj. 

The tidings that the people in the other coun- 
tries of Europe were horrified at the doings of the 
6 French people, and were coming to help the royal 
family, newly excited the leaders. The rabble 
attacked the Tuileries. The king appeared and 
drank with them. He put on a tricolored cap, 
and joined in the Cry, “ Long live liberty ! long 
10 live the nation ! ” 

But the rioters rushed through the splendid halls 
of the palace, and killed every one of the royal 
Swiss guard. 

The king and his family now hastened to the 
15 hall of the Assembly, and placed themselves under 
its protection. A little later, they were taken to 
the gloomy fortress of the Temple. 

The dreadful massacres of September followed, 
— massacres of priests and nobles and of any who 
20 would not support the new measures. 

At this time two victories were gained by the 
French on the frontiers over those who were trying 
to reach Paris to rescue the king and queen. 

A republic was now established. All titles were 
26 given up. From the king to the blacksmith, every- 
body was called « citizen.” 

In a short time all other parties fell before the 
terrible Jacobins and their Reign of Terror. The 



THB STORAHNa OP THE TUILERIBS 







396 


most prominent leaders were Marat and Robes- 
pierre. 

The royal family in the Temple had been de- 
prived of almost every comfort except that of 
5 being together. 

But the king was soon taken from them. He 
was tried and condemned for plotting against the 
liberty of his people. 

He was executed in 1793, 

10 Through the parting and the trial, and even to 
the end, he was calm. 

Shortly after the execution of the king, the little 
dauphin was taken from his mother and placed 
in the charge of a cruel jailer. Then Marie An- 
15 toinette was forced to say farewell to her daughter 
and her sister, and was carried away to a lonely 
prison. After several months, she was tried and 
j condemned. Clad in white, and with the calm 
i dignity of despair, she rode to the place of execu- 
20tion in the open car that was used for all those 
who were to be put to death. Arrived at the guillo 
tine, — the spot where her husband had fallen, — 
she looked firmly upon the dreadful instrument 
which so soon ended her sufferings. 

25 Then one long shout, “ Vive la Republique ! ” 
rent the air, and the tragic life of Marie Antoinette 
was- closed. 

After a time the saintly Princess Elizabeth who 


397 


had clung so fondly to her brother’s family was 
also led out, and the young princess was left 
alone. 

Robespierre was now supreme. His atrocities 
grew worse and worse, until finally the Terrorists 5 
themselves became divided. They were afraid of 
him. One day a welcome cry, “ Down with the 
tyrant ! ” was heard in the streets. 

A furious struggle followed. Robespierre fought 
desperately, but finally his head fell. With this 10 
the Reign of Terror was at an end. Milder coun- 
sels now prevailed ; law and order were restored. 

A Directory of five men was appointed to es- 
tablish a republican government. The Terrorists 
were frightened at this new rule, fearing that the 16 
end of their reign had come. Forty thousand 
strong, they marched against the Tuileries. They 
were met by a shower of grapeshot which sent 
them fleeing in great disorder. They had found 
their master, and the principal act of the Revolu -20 
tion was over. The young man behind the guns 
was Napoleon Bonaparte ! 

The old Place de la Revolution in Paris is to-day 
the beautiful Place de la Concorde. There an 
imposing obelisk now marks the spot where stood 25 
the guillotine in the gloomy days of the French 
Revolution. 


398 


THE MAESEILLAISE 

Ye sons of Freedom, wake to glory ! 

Hark ! hark ! what myriads bid you rise — 
Your children, wives, and grandsires hoary, 
Behold their tears and hear. their cries! 

6 Shall hateful tyrants, mischiefs breeding, 

With hireling hosts, a ruffian band, 

Affright and desolate the land. 

While peace and liberty lie bleeding ? 

To arms ! to arms ! ye brave, 

10 The avenging sword unsheath ; 

• March on ! march on ! all hearts resolved 
On victory or death. 


« Now^ Aow, the dangerous storm is rolling. 
Which treacherous kings confederate raise; 
16 The dogs of war, let loose, are howling. 

And lo ! our fields and cities blaze ; 

And shall we basely view the ruin. 

While lawless force, with guilty stride, 
Spreads desolation far and wide, 

20 With crimes and blood his hands imbruing ? 
To arms ! to arms ! ye brave, 

The avenging sword unsheath ; 

March on ! march on ! all hearts resolved 
On victory or death. 


399 


“With luxury and pride surrounded, 

The vile, insatiate despots dare 
(Their thirst of power and gold unbounded) 

To mete and rend the light and air. 

Like beasts of burden would they load us, 6 

Like gods would bid their slaves adore ; 

But man is man, and who is more ? 

Then shall they longer lash and goad us ? 

To arms ! to arms ! ye brave. 

The avenging sword unsheath ; 10 

March on ! march on ! all hearts resolved 
On victory or death. 

“O Liberty! can man resign thee. 

Once having felt thy generous flame ? 

Can dungeons, bolts, or bars confine thee, is 

Or whips thy noble spirit tame ? 

For long the world has wept bewailing 
That Falsehood’s dagger tyrants wield ; 

But Freedom in our sword and shield. 

And all their cuts are unavailing. 20 

To arms ! to arms ! ye brave. 

The avenging sword unsheath ; 

March on ! march on ! all hearts resolved 
On victory or death.” 


— Rouget de l’Isle. 


400 


Napoleon Bonaparte 

Napoleon Bonaparte was born at Ajaccio, on 
the island of Corsica, on the 15th of August, 1769. 
This island had belonged to the Italians, but had 
recently been conquered by the French. Napoleon, 
6 in his conversation, always betrayed an Italian 
accent. 

His father died when Napoleon was a little boy, 
leaving a widow with eight children. The family 
had very little money ; but later, when Napoleon 
10 became famous, he ennobled his brothers and sisters, 
and always cared generously for his mother. 

Napoleon was not like other boys. He was 
gloomy and silent, and wished to be alone or to 
play war. A little grotto is still shown on the 
16 island of Corsica, where he used to spend hours by 
himself with his books ; and, also, a small cannon 
which was his favorite plaything. He sometimes 
gathered the boys about him, and taught them to 
fight with wooden sabers. 

20 When he was ten years old, he was sent to a 
military school at Brienne. There were many rich 
boys there; and, at first, they looked down upon 
Napoleon, for his dress was so plain and he had no 
money. But he became so fine a student in history 
25 and mathematics that they soon began to respect 
him. 


401 


A little land was given each student. Napoleon 
made his into a fortified camp, in the center of 
which he arranged a pleasant bower, and there he 
used to study. 

Napoleon remained for five years at Brienne, and 
then was promoted to a military school at Paris. 
Here he was never popular with the other boys, 
for he preferred study to amusement. When one 
of them complained of his want of gallantry, he 
replied, « It is not by playing and dancing that a 
man is to be formed.” 

One day the professor gave a very difficult prob- 
lem in mathematics. Napoleon kept his room for 
seventy-two hours, and, to the surprise of all, 
reached the solution. 

When he was sixteen years old, he received an 
appointment in the French army. The English 
had captured Toulon, a naval city of France, and 
so strong that it was called “Little Gibraltar.” 
Napoleon was sent against it. After a fierce 
attack, the “little bit of an officer,” as he was 
called, succeeded in capturing it. This gave him 
great reputation in the army. When the Reign 
of Terror was over, and a Directory of five men 
had been given command in Paris, the people 
again became restless. A formidable army ,of 
forty thousand men, led by the national guard, 
Paraded the streets. What could the Directory 


5 

10 

15 

20 

25 


402 


do? It seemed impossible to hold to the new 
government. 

While the Directory was in session discussing 
the hopeless situation, Barras, one of their number, 
6 exclaimed, “ I know the man who can defend us, 
if any one can,” and he called Napoleon down from 
the gallery. All expected to see a man of soldierly 
look ; but to their surprise, a small, slender, pale- 
faced young fellow entered the hall. He was 
10 asked if he was willing to undertake the defense 
of the Convention. « Perfectly,” he replied, “ and 
I am in the habit of accomplishing what I under- 
take.” Napoleon insisted that he should be given 
the entire command. He had guns posted in the 
16 Garden of the Tuileries in such a way as to sweep 
all the avenues leading to it. Presently the enemy 
appeared, and approached the Tuileries where the 
Directors were sitting. The army was fired upon, 
and fied in every direction. The revolution had 
120 been promptly put down. 

A law was now made that the swords of those 
who had perished in the revolt must be given up 
to the Directory, in order to prevent another out- 
break. Among many others, one was brought by 
25 a beautiful boy, Eugene Beauharnais. It had be- 
longed to his father, and he begged hard to keep 
it. Napoleon was touched with the child’s grief, 
and granted his request. Eugene’s mother. 


403 


Madame Beauharnais, a charming creole from 
the West Indies, called to express her gratitude. 
Napoleon was impressed with her grace and sad- 
ness, and not long afterward he married her. As 
the bride’s marriage dower, Barras, in 1796, gave 6 
Napoleon command of the army in Italy. 

Napoleon loved war better than anything else. 
In order to get just a little idea of his battles in 
Italy, Egypt, Spain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and 
Belgium, we must keep the map of Europe openio 
before us. Napoleon was always on the move. 
As we may imagine, after all that had happened 
in France, the soldiers that made up his first army 
were very poor and half-starved. 

Napoleon promised that he should lead themi5 
into Italy to the most fertile fields of the world, 
where they should conquer cities and provinces, 
and find honor and wealth. Inspired with visions 
of military glory, the troops marched bravely for- 
ward. On and over the Alps they went, and as they 20 
looked down upon the sunny plains of Italy beyond, 
Napoleon exclaimed, « Hannibal is surpassed I ” 

Fourteen battles were won in this first campaign 
fought against Austria in northern Italy. The most 
daring one was at Lodi. Here was a stone bridge, 25 
strongly defended by the Austrians. Napoleon, at 
the head of his army, charged right over the bridge 
in the face of the foe, who retreated in disorder. 


404 


From this time he was the idol of the soldiers, 
their « Little Corporal.” He won for them all that 
he had promised. They were well fed and paid. 
Besides, six million dollars were sent to France to 
6 assist in paying the public debt. When Napoleon 
went back to France, he was received with grea. 
honor by the Directory ; but he yet was very mod- 
est, and returned quietly to his home. 

England was always an enemy to Napoleon. It 
10 was the one country which he never dared to 
attack directly. But his plan was now to invade 
Egypt. Perhaps by doing this he might make 
conquests in the East, and drive the English out 
of India. So with his army he sailed for Alex . 
15 andria. 

In 1798, right under the shadow of the great 
Pyramids, the Mamelukes defied him. “ Soldiers,” 
he exclaimed, pointing to the Pyramids, « forty 
centuries are looking down upon ^you!” The 
20 French awaited the attack. The horsemen of the 
desert, on their magnificent Arab steeds, rode for- 
ward with great dignity. But they scattered hur- 
riedly in every direction at the steady fire of the 
French soldiers, and Napoleon won the « Battle of 
25 the Pyramids.” The English knew at once what 
Napoleon was trying to do. 

Nelson, England’s naval hero, started after him, 
reached Egypt, destroyed his fleet in the bay of 



NAPOLEON IN EGYPT 


406 


Aboukir, and prevented any further success in the 
East. Napoleon was greatly disappointed. Hun- 
ger and thirst and the plague assailed his army 
as it crossed the Syrian desert. Finally Napoleon 
6 deserted his soldiers. Sailing away in an open 
boat, he succeeded in escaping from Nelson’s fleet, 

, and returned to Paris. Later, the remnant of his 
army managed to reach home. When he arrived 
in Paris, he found that the Directory had lost the 
10 greater part of its power, and he easily overturned 
it. The whole form of government was changed, 
and he became first consul, and went to live in 
the Tuileries. 

Now he determined to attack the forces of Aus- 
ir)tria in Italy. With his soldiers he made a most 
difficult passage of the Alps, and surprised the 
Austrians. He gained over them several victories, 
the principal one being at Marengo. About this 
time, his general, Moreau, attacked other Austrians 
SO in the gloomy forest of Hohenlinden, and he, too, 
gained a famous victory. 

In all his battles Napoleon showed great mili- 
tary genius ; for by a series of rapid moves, he 
would usually attack the enemy before they were 
26 ready to fight. Other countries soon grew jealous 
of the rising power of France. There were many 
coalitions against Napoleon, and these were gener- 
ally headed by England. 


407 


In 1804, Napoleon was crowned emperor in the 
cathedral of Notre Dame, in Paris. The corona- 
tion was a magnificent ceremony. The Pope came 
all the way from Rome to pour the sacred oil upon 
the head of Napoleon, who insisted on crowning 6 
both Josephine and himself. In the Tuileries the em- 
peror established a splendid court of brilliant men 
and women, and always claimed the honor of being 
its center. Indeed, he was very despotic — all had 
to bow before his will. He bestowed titles, andio 
established the Legion of Honor, by which a medal 
was bestowed upon any one doing signal service 
to the government. He formed the Napoleonic 
« Code of Laws,” which in itself would have made 
him renowned. He built the fine Simplon Road 15 
over the Alps into Italy. 

He always brought home, after his wars, 
pictures and sculptures and manuscripts to enrich 
the museums at Paris. He adorned the city with 
many costly buildings. 20 

Napoleon had a wonderful capacity for work. 
He rarely slept more tharf four hours out of the 
twenty-four, and seldom spent more than fifteen or 
twenty minutes at a meal. 

When he rose, his guests had to rise too ; for he 25 
was very particular in matters of etiquette. So 
those who dined with him were often hungry 
when the meal was over. 


408 


Of the battles after Napoleon became emperor 
that at Austerlitz, fought in 1805, is one of the 
most famous. Napoleon’s purpose was to break 
down an alliance between Austria and Russia. In 
6 the fight, Napoleon hurled his twenty-five thousand 
men right into the center of the Austrian army 
arrayed against him. The Austrians were terribly 
defeated, and two thousand were drowned in trying 
to escape over a frozen lake. After this, peace was 
10 made with Austria. To render this more secure, 
Napoleon divorced Josephine and married Marie 
Louise, the daughter of the emperor, Francis Joseph. 

A little later. Nelson, the famous English 
admiral, gained another sea victory over the 
15 French at Cape Trafalgar. 

Nelson’s watchword was, “ England expects 
every man to do his duty.” 

The men did their part bravely, but their loved 
hero fell. 

20 The French were powerful on the land, but 
could not cope with the mariners of England. 

Napoleon now gained a victory at Jena over 
the Prussians. Here he stole in behind the enemy, 
defeating them with fearful slaughter. 

25 Then he entered the cities of Berlin and Pots- 
dam, and rified museums and galleries. Among 
other things which he carried away was the sword 
of Frederick the Great. So much money had to 


409 


be paid him to leave Berlin that the women helped 
to raise it by giving up their jewelry, and after- 
ward brooches and chains and rings were made 
of iron. Even to-day the iron jewelry is one of 
the industries of Berlin. Napoleon had a fight 
with the Russians too ; but later he formed a 
kind of sentimental friendship with the Czar 
Alexander, and this lasted for some time. 

In the campaigns in Spain and Portugal, Napo- 
leon always lost. 

The high-spirited Spaniards would not be con- 
quered, and to aid them, England sent her brave 
general, Wellesley, later the Duke of Wellington. 

In 1812, Napoleon made the fatal mistake of 
his life. His friendship with Alexander had 
cooled, and he determined to invade Russia. Many 
kingdoms and provinces were now subject to 
France, and from all of them splendidly equipped 
armies met Napoleon in Dresden. He remained 
there several weeks, holding a magnificent court. 
Then with his immense army of French, Austrians, 
Prussians, Poles, Italians, Germans, and Swiss, he 
marched into Russia. As the Frei^ch advanced^ 
the Russians retired, laying waste the country as 
they went. 

One battle and many skirmishes were fought, 
and still the French pushed on uritil they reached 
Moscow. They were surprised to find the city 

2fi 


5 

10 

15 

20 

25 


410 


deserted. They entered and took possession, and 
warmed and refreshed thetoselves after the long 
march. 

Then fire burst forth, not in one corner of the 
6 city, but in perhaps- a thousand places at once ! 
for the Russians had set fire to it before they left. 

Fiery winds swept the flames, and Moscow was 
soon a mass of ruins. 

Alexander would not make peace. The French 
10 could do nothing but march back again. It was 
an awful retreat, full of horror and suffering. The 
journey was made slowly, that the soldiers might 
drag along the plunder. Napoleon marched with 
them, clad in a long, fur-lined cloak. His staff 
16 followed him. Thousands were frozen to death. 
Thousands more were killed by the Cossacks, who 
seemed always to follow. 

Napoleon now left the army and hurried to 
Paris, feeling that the fate of the empire depended 
20 011 his being in that city. Marshal Ney, the 
^ “bravest of the brave,” stayed in the rear and 
beat back those who attacked the army. He 
called himself the “ rearguard of the grand army.” 

It is thought that three hundred thousand 
25 soldiers were lost in this campaign. Now there was 
a coalition formed against Napoleon, not only of 
the nations that he had conquered, but of many 
others. 


411 


He met his foes in a three days’ battle at 
Leipsic. This was called the « Battle of the 
Nations.” 

Napoleon was defeated and his empire dissolved. 
Then he abdicated his throne, bade a pathetic fi 
farewell to his old and faithful guard, and went 
off to the little island of Elba, which had been 
given him for a home. 

From there he watched the affairs in France. 
We know that Louis XVIII, the brother oflo 
Louis XVI, was restored to the throne, and that 
the people did not like the new rule. So he de- 
termined to go back to France. 

In September, 1814, the allies had met with the 
hope of restoring quiet and prosperity in Europe,!^ 
for Napoleon’s \vars had brought disorder in all 
the countries. While they were having debates 
and gay festivals, there came the startling news 
that Napoleon had reappeared in France. 

Then there was hurry and confusion. An army 20 
was sent to Cannes to capture him. Marshal Ney 
was told to bring him in an iron cage to Paris. 
But one sight of their loved hero was enough for 
•the soldiers. They embraced him, and brought him 
in triumphal procession to Paris, and Louis XVIII 25 
fled. 

Once more the allies joined against Napoleon. 
He collected an army in which were many boys, — 


412 


such a large number of the men were killed, — 
and moved swiftly into Belgium. 

Now England and France faced each other. For 
the first time, the two greatest generals of Europe, 
5 Wellington and Napoleon, met on the field of 
Waterloo, in 1815. The English soldiers were 
arranged in squares, and for five hours the French 
dashed furiousl}^ upon them. All charges were 
repulsed. The English gathered more closely about 
10 the French, and at last, when Blticher came up to 
assist Wellington, the French soldiers fled. 

Napoleon put spurs to his horse, and hastened 
away. He said later that his sun rose on the field 
of Austerlitz and set on the field of Waterloo. His 
16 valiant guard fought to the end, doing honor to 
their motto, “The old guard dies, but never sur- 
renders.” 

Napoleon now tried to escape to America, but 
he was taken by the English and placed on the 
20 island of St. Helena. This was so far away that 
they felt sure that Europe need have no more fear 
of Napoleon. He died there on the 5th of May, 
1821. Later, his body was surrendered to the 
French and taken back to Paris. There he was 
26 buried in a magnificent mausoleum in the Hotel 
des Invalides. Around this are many tattered 
flags, gained by Napoleon in his battles. 

No ruler since Charlemagne had so much power 


413 


as Napoleon, and probably no military leader has, 
surpassed him in skill and bravery ; but he was too 
fond of war, and too desirous of making Europe 
one vast empire, over which he should reign 
supreme. 6 


YE MARINERS OF ENGLAND 

« Ye Mariners of England 
That guard our native seas ! 

Whose flag has braved a thousand years. 

The battle and the breeze ! 

Your glorious standard launch again lo 

To match another foe : 

And sweep through the deep. 

While the stormy winds do blow ; 

While the battle rages loud and long 

And the stormy winds do blow. 16 

« The spirits of your fathers 
Shall start from every wave — 

For the deck it was their fleld of fame, 

4 

And Ocean was their grave : 

Where Blake and mighty Nelson fell 20 

Your manly hearts shall glow. 

As ye sweep through the deep. 

While the stormy winds do blow ; 

While the battle rages loud and long. 

And the stormy winds do blow. 


25 


414 


« Britannia needs no bulwarks, 

No towers along the steep; 

Her march is o’er the mountain-waves, 

Her home is on the deep. 

S With thunders from her native oak 

She quells the floods below — 

As they roar on the shore, 

When the stormy winds do blow ; 

When the battle rages loud and long, 

10 And the stormy winds do blow. 

« The meteor flag of England 
Shall yet terrific burn ; 

Till danger’s troubled night depart. 

And the stars of peace return. 

15 Then, then, ye ocean-warriors ! 

Our song and feast shall flow 
To the fame of your name. 

When the storm has ceased to blow ; 
When the fiery fight is heard no more, 

20 And the storm has ceased to blow.” 

— Thomas Campbell. 


Garibaldi 

Rome, the proud mistress of the ancient world, 
was conquered by barbarians. In the later cen- 
turies, Rienzi and other patriots tried to make 
the city the capital of a free and united Italy. 


415 


But every effort failed until the nineteenth century. 
At this time four men appeared : Victor Emman- 
uel, Garibaldi, Mazzini, and Cavour. 

Victor Emmanuel has been called the banner; 
Garibaldi, the sword ; Mazzini, the brain ; and 6 
Cavour, the genius of Italian liberty. They finally 
ended the struggle which had lasted for centuries. 

We are to read about Garibaldi, “the sword.” 
His life w^as full of daring adventure. He was 
born in 1807, at Nice, in southern France. Heio 
was a restless lad, always loving to sail away over 
rough seas, or to climb the highest mountains. 
When he was twelve years old, he fitted up a boat, 
with some other boys, and they started for the 
East to make their fortunes. But happily fori5 
Italy, Garibaldi’s father captured the young truants 
and brought them back again. 

Garibaldi had such a bright mind that the father 
would have made him a priest, but the boy was 
too fond of the sea to think about a quiet, religious 20 
life. Later, he became the “ Sea Captain of Nice.” 
In his trading ship he was often attacked by Greek 
pirates, and sometimes they would steal both 
clothes and provisions. 

At this time both the French and Austrians 25 
owned parts of Italy. The Italians were deter- 
mined that they would in some way drive out the 
foreigners. 


416 


There were many plots and revolts, and a society 
was formed called the “ Carbonari,” or “ Charcoal- 
burners.” This had much power among the Italian 
peasants. 

5 Garibaldi liked to read old Roman history and 
to talk of Italy free, and he was always wishing 
that he might strike a blow for liberty. Just now, 
Mazzini, a young lawyer, formed a society called 
“ Young Italy.” A plot was made to seize the gov- 
10 ernment, but the plotters were discovered and 
sentenced to death. In some way. Garibaldi 
managed to escape. After traveling much, and 
living for days on chestnuts, he at last arrived at 
Nice. 

15 Banished from Italy, he went to South America. 
There he had a variety of experiences. He was a 
trader, a cattle-dealer, and a school-teacher, but 
he was not successful in anything. However, he 
helped the South American Republics in their 
20 struggle for freedom. He was wounded and 
imprisoned, and he had some marvelous escapes. 
The soldiers of his “ Italian Legion,” which he 
formed hei^e, became, under their sturdy leader, 
very famous fighters. 

25 Here’ he fell in love with Anita, a tall, dark- 
haired maiden. She married him, and was always 
at' his side — in time of war as well as in time of 
peace. They were so poor that many times they 


417 


went to bed at sunset to save the expense of 
candles. 

After living in South America for fourteen years, 
Garibaldi felt that he must again see Italy. So he 
and his family and his Italian legion sailed back 6 
under a Sardinian flag which Anita had made 
from bits taken from a green uniform, a red scarf, 
and an old counterpane. 

After a stormy passage, Garibaldi, the Hero of 
the Red Shirt,” appeared once more in Italy. Hi.sio 
appearance was very striking. He wore a red 
blouse, a cap of scarlet cloth, a white cloak lined 
with red, and carried a dagger in his belt. 
Now he offered his services to Sardinia. Italian 
patriots all turned to Sardinia, for there the spirit 15 
of liberty burned brightest. 

Victor Emmanuel, who came to the throne of 
Sardinia in 1849, was much liked. He was called 
the “ Honest King ” because he always kept his 
word to his subjects. Cavour, his wise minister, 20 
did all in his power to urge the people to unite 
and drive out both French and Austrians. In • 
1849, Garibaldi held Rome for Victor Emmanuel 
for a little time against the French and the Pope, 
but finally he was driven out. 25 

Saying that Italy was not yet dead, he called on 
all who would to follow him. Then hy lonely sea- 
ways and land- ways, he tried with his little band 


418 


to reach Venice. On the journey a great grief came 
to him. His faithful Anita was taken ill, and she 
died in a peasant’s cottage. . 

The country was full of Austrians. Again Gari- 
6baldi had to flee, and give up the noble cause to 
which he had pledged his life. Driven from Italy, 
he went again to America. This time he landed 
in New York. Here he met a friend who per- 
suaded him to work for a year and a half as a 
10 tallow-chandler, on Staten Island. Then, tired of 
this occupation, he journeyed to the West and 
South. 

Later he returned to Europe, and bought a part 
of the rocky island of Caprera, off the coast of 
15 Sardinia. Now the sailor and soldier became a 
farmer, and he was very happy in his home and 
in the cultivation of his land. 

Again and again he was sent for by Victor 
Emmanuel and Cavour to fight against the enemy. 
20 When the soldiers heard that Garibaldi was com- 
ing, they always flocked to his standard. He 
fought battles which made him the delight of 
those whom he commanded and the terror of the 
enemy. Sometimes Victor Emmanuel would say 
26 to him : “ Go where you will. Do what you like; 
I have but one regret, that I am not able to follow 
you.” And yet again, the same king, fearing for 
his throne, dared not give him aid. 






MEETING OF GARIBALDI AND VICTOR EMMANUEL 




420 


Often royal troops^ were sent against Garibaldi; 
and he was put into prison because he would not 
obey the king ; but he did not seem to care. He 
did whatever he thought was best for Italy. He 
6 determined to capture Sicily and Naples for Victor 
Emmanuel. He summoned his men by the follow- 
ing proclamation : “ To arms ! He who does not 
snatch up a weapon is a coward and a traitor to 
his country ! ” 

10 All kinds of weapons were snatched up by the 
poor peasants who flocked to Garibaldi. He con- 
quered the provinces of Sicily and Naples, and 
after the war what a hero he became ! Ladies 
dressed in red ; people pressed forward either to 
15 kiss his hand or to touch his red jacket. 

He was so poor that he washed his red shirt in 
the brook, and his luncheon was usually only 
bread and water and a little fruit. He had, 
indeed, no money in his pocket; but he handed 
20 the two Sicilies over to his sovereign. 

In 1861, Victor Emmanuel was crowned at Turin 
as king of Italy. 

Now Garibaldi was elected a member of the 
Italian parliament. We know that he made most 
25 eloquent speeches on the subject which was near' 
est to his heart, — the freedom of Italy. 

Twice now Garibaldi raised an army of volun- 
teers and tried to seize Rome from the French. 


421 


But he did not succeed, for his raw recruits could 
not fight against the well-disciplined troops of 
France. Later, however, on account of German 
victories, the French were obliged to withdraw 
their soldiers. 

In 1870, Victor Emmanuel entered the city as 
king of united Italy. 

Garibaldi had rendered splendid services to his 
country. Grateful Italy voted him two thousand 
pounds a year. He was elected a member of the 
Italian parliament in Rome. As he entered the 
city, the streets were filled with people loudly 
cheering him. They tried to remove the horses and 
drag the carriage to the senate chamber. Garibaldi 
entered on the arm of his son, and when he rose 
to take the oath, the house resounded with ap- 
plause. 

Like Cincinnatus of old. Garibaldi retired to 
his loved home, and there he spent his last years 
receiving homage from all parts of Europe. 
He always recalled with special delight the wel- 
come and ovation with which England honored 
him. To the close of his life. Garibaldi was a grand 
old Spartan. 

He lived till he was seventy-four years old. He 
had become a cripple and very frail in body, but 
his mind remained clear to the end. 

On the 2d of June, 1882, he lay all day by his 


5 

10 

15 

20 

25 


422 


window looking out upon the sea. Just at sunset 
a bird alighted on the window-sill. Garibaldi 
looked at it, and said faintly, “ How joyful it is ! ” 
Then he closed his eyes in death. 

6 He had helped to give Italy that for which it 
had longed in all the centuries. Wherever in the 
world the spirit of liberty is loved, there will 
Garibaldi’s name ‘be cherished. 

1 

“ I heard last night a little child go singing 
10 ’Neath Casa Guidi windows, by the church, 

‘ 0 bella liberta, 0 bella ! ’ stringing 
The same words still on notes he went in search 
So high for, you concluded the upspringing 
Of such a nimble bird to sky from perch 
16 Must leave the whole bush in a tremble green ; 

And that the heart of Italy must beat. 

While such a voice had leave to rise serene 
’ Twixt church and palace of a Florence street ! 

A little child too, who not long had been 
20 By mother’s finger steadied on his feet ; 

And still ‘ 0 bella liberta ’ he sang.” 

— Mrs. Browning. 


Kossuth 

Leaving Italy and its « knight-errant,” Garibaldi, 
we find in Hungary our next revolutionary hero, 
Kossuth. Hungary, Turkey, France, England, and 
26 the United States, — we shall need a map that 
shows them all as we trace the wanderings of the 
Hungarian patriot. Kossuth lived through nearly 


423 


all the nineteenth century ; for he was born in 1802, 
and died in 1894. 

His father was a lawyer, a serious and determined 
man, and his mother was a gentle and very patriotic 
woman. Kossuth was her only son; and from a little 6 
boy she tried to inspire his heart with the love of 
freedom. For, at this time, Hungary needed pa- 
triots. It was under the control of Austria, although 
it had its own parliament or Diet at the capital, Pres- 
burg. The Austrians gave the country no liberty, lo 

Kossuth had a fine education. He was very fond 
of natural sciences, especially botany. He could 
speak five languages, and he loved sports. He be- 
came such a skilled lawyer that when he was only 
twenty-one years old his father would often ask 15 
his advice. In the year 1832, he was a delegate to 
the Hungarian Diet. 

He had been very fond of playing cards, and his 
mother felt troubled lest he should be led into 
temptation and prove unfaithful to his trust. But 20 
before taking the place, he promised his mother 
faithfully that he would never again play for 
money, and he kept his word. 

He had greatly enjoyed bear-hunting. But he 
read from a Persian poet a passage in which there 26 
was an appeal against injuring anything which had 
a right to live. Kossuth was impressed with the 
thought, and never again hunted a bear. 


424 


As we have seen, this was an age ot revolution. 
Discontented people in one country stirred up un- 
rest in another. What especially .excited the brave 
Hungarians at this time was the fact that the Poles 
6 had just rebelled against Russia. They had been 
banished, and many had fled to Hungary, and they 
talked to the people about liberty. The Hungarians 
were forbidden to have anything to do with the 
rebels. But many sympathized with them, and 
10 often fed and sheltered them. Kossuth’s mother 
was among those who gave aid. 

Kossuth was such a young man that he was not 
expected to say much in the Diet ; but he did 
something that helped the people more than words 
15 could have done. 

At this time, newspapers were forbidden, and no 
one dared to report the laws which the Diet made. 
But Kossuth took notes, and mailed copies to all 
parts of the country. These were seized at the 
20 post-office. Kossuth next hired messengers to carry 
them over the land. 

After a time, the Diet was dissolved. Then 
Kossuth started a weekly newspaper. In this the 
peasants in all the country were told what was 
25 going on in Hungary. When they could not read, 
or were too poor to buy the papers, the village 
notary read them aloud to the assembled villagers. 
Hundreds heard the news in this way. 


425 


Stronger and stronger grew the desire for a 
reform which should make Hungary free. When 
the Austrian government at Vienna knew what 
Kossuth was doing, it was furious. 

He was seized at night and cast into a lonely 6 
prison. Here, for two years, he was not permitted 
to have a pen or a book or to see a friend. After 
this he was treated somewhat better. A few books 
were given him, and with a dictionary, a copy of 
Shakespeare, and the Bible he studied English. lo 
Later, he was really noted for his correct and . 
polished use of our language. 

After a time the Austrians were very much per- 
plexed. They needed both men and money. The 
Hungarians were so indignant about Kossuth that 15 
they would give neither. At last, in order to se- 
cure what they wished, the Austrians were obliged 
to release him. 

The people were overjoyed to have him again to 
talk with them and to plan for their welfare. 20 

He again published a paper; he started some 
savings banks ; and he taught the people better 
methods of trade. He always swayed his country- 
men by his magic eloquence. In the year 1848, 
some reformers led by Kossuth went to the em-26 
peror of Austria, and asked him to give them 
greater rights. He received them graciously, and 
promised to grant all that they desired, but he 


426 


proved unfaithful to his promise. The people 
were now determined to arm themselves and 
fight against Austria, and to try to gain their 
independence. 

5 Kossuth was the soul of the revolution. He 
told the people to arouse themselves, for much 
money and many men would be needed. As he 
spoke, the four hundred representatives who were 
listening to his speech rose as one man. Each 
10 lifted his right arm toward heaven and swore, 
« We grant it, freedom or death ! ’’ 

A terrible revolution followed. Kossuth was 
liot a soldier, but he truly fought with his heart- 
stirring eloquence. Once he aroused his troops by 
15 the following striking words : — 

Magyars, there is the road to your peaceful 
homes and firesides. Yonder is the path of death, 
but it is the path of duty. Which will you take ? 
Every man shall choose for himself. We want 
20 none but willing soldiers.” The great body of 
men replied by shouting, as if with one voice, 
“ Liberty or death ! ” 

Hungarian peasants armed themselves with axes 
and scythes, and with the heavy whips which they 
15 used for their horses and cattle on the plains. 

One Austrian army after another was driven 
back. Kossuth kept up the daring spirits of his 
people. But it was in vain that the Austrians 


427 


were beaten back. Presently the Russians came 
and fought with them against the Hungarians. 

At last, Gorgey, the famous leader, either be- 
trayed his army or was forced to lay down his 
arms. 

.( His soldiers broke their swords and shot their 
horses, that these might not fall into the hands of 
the enemy. Years of terror followed. The Hun- 
garians were hanged and shot and butchered, and 
those who were left could only submit. 

Kossuth, with a few friends, escaped into 
Turkey. His wife and children were thrown into 
jail, but later were allowed to join him. 

He spent the last half of his life in exile. 

The Sultan of Turkey treated him nobly. He 
would not give him up, although both Austria and 
Russia begged for him. The Turks told Kossuth 
that if he would become a Mohammedan, his 
enemies could never take him. This, however, 
Kossuth refused to do. 

He was invited to visit America, and he accepted, 
and a ship was sent for his party. On leaving 
Turkey, the Sultan said to him : “You are free, you 
will find friends everywhere. Do not forget those 
who were your friends when you had no other.” 

Kossuth always remembered gratefully the kind- 
ness of the Sultan. 

No other foreign guest except Lafayette was 


5 

10 

15 

20 

25 


428 


ever received in America with so much honor as 
Kossuth. 

As he landed at the Battery in New York, an 
immense crowd loudly cheered him. Flags were 
6 vaving gayly, and the band played, « Hail to the 
chief, who in triumph advances.” He was much 
touched by this royal welcome. 

In his first speech in America he said : Freedom 
and home ! What heavenly music in these two 
10 words ! Alas, I have no home, and the freedom of 
my country is downtrodden.” 

He spoke in many places in the cities of our 
land, among them St. Bartholomew’s Church, in 
Manhattan, and Plymouth Church, in Brooklyn. 
15 In his speeches he always had words of praise for 
America, and earnestly begged an interest in the 
freedom of Hungary. 

All his hearers admired him, but he failed in his 
purpose. Neither tl\e government nor private 
20 citizens would aid him in rousing another revolu- 
tion in Hungary. 

Everywhere he went he spoke also of the in- 
creasing and dangerous power of Russia. 

The last years of Kossuth’s life were passed in a 
26 pleasant villa in Turin, in Italy. 

He kept up a correspondence with famous men 
everywhere. As a young man he was very hand- 
some ; as an old man he was known by his white 


429 


locks, long flowing beard, sweet voice, and sad and 
quiet manner. 

Later, Austria gave to Hungary the freedom and 
the constitution for which it had longed for so 
many years. Kossuth always felt that it was the 5 
result of what he had done for his country in the 
revolution of 1848. 

He died in 1894, at the age of ninety-two. He 
was buried in Hungary, the land which he had 
loved, with every mark of honor and affection. lo 

Heroes of the Flying Age 

The problem of flying is a very big one, and 
for thousands of years men have tried to solve 
it. You perhaps remember the funny story of 
Daedalus and Icarus; it proves that even in 
legendary days men thought they should be able 15 
to fly as birds do. In the Middle Ages, too, they 
fitted wings onto themselves and jumped from 
hilltops, hoping in vain to soar away. 

It was in France, in the eighteenth century, 
that the first successful invention for rising in 20 
the air was made. Two brothers named Mont- 
golfier, observing that hot vapor was lighter 
than air, conceived the idea of making balls of 
silk inflated with hot vapor. The superstitious 
peasants at first thought these balloons unwel -25 
come visitors from another world. 


430 


In 1782, the Montgolfier Brothers gave an 
exhibition before King Louis XVI., Queen Marie 
Antoinette, and a crowd of courtiers and peasants. 
This time they suspended a wicker cage beneath 
5 the balloon, in which they placed a sheep, cock, 
and duck, the first living freight ever carried in 
the air. The balloon rose fifteen hundred feet, 
then descended into a distant wood without dis- 
turbing the animals. 

10 Now it was decided that men might venture 
to ascend and King Louis suggested, as pas- 
sengers, two prisoners under sentence of death. 
But de Rozier, a gallant gentleman, stepped for- 
ward and begged that vile criminals be not the 
15 first to enjoy this honor and he was allowed to 
go in their stead. So the Montgolfier Brothers 
and de Rozier are the earliest heroes of ballooning. 

There were constant improvements in the 
construction of balloons. Hydrogen gas, being 
20 less infiammable than hot vapor, was used to 
fill the bag, and the envelope was sometimes 
made of strong skin instead of silk, but there 
was always difficulty in steering until dirigible 
motors were designed. From France the inven- 
25 tion of balloons was carried to other countries, 
and in every war that followed from the French 
Revolution through the Franco-Prussian, they 
played an active part in the carrying of messages. 


431 


Later Count Zeppelin, in Germany, invented 
dirigible airships. These were huge, cigar-shaped 
gas-bags, some of them over five hundred feet 
long, with a cabin beneath. A temporary sail- 
ing line was established between Diisseldorf and 
Berlin and the twelve hour trip of four hundred 
miles was made in comfort and luxury. The 
passengers glided along without the annoyance 
of dust or cinders and partook of a buffet luncheon 
in the clouds. 

Towards the close of the nineteenth century, 
in many countries, especially in France, Italy 
and the United States, there was marked activity 
in regard to new forms of flying-machines. And 
now let me suddenly transport you to Dayton, 
Ohio, and introduce you there to two investigat- 
ing children, Wilbur and Orville Wright. In 
the year 1878 their father brought them from 
New York a toy-flier made in France. Before 
presenting it to them, he tossed it into the air 
and they watched it fly across the room, flutter 
and balance itself before it sank to the floor. 
This toy set the children to thinking about flying. 

On Sunday afternoons they would lie flat 
on their backs, on a high hill, watching the 
motions of birds, for they reasoned in this wise: 
birds are heavier than air; if man is to fly, he 
must do it in the way birds do. They also dis- 


5 

10 

15 

20 

25 


432 


covered that the path of the bird is just a suc- 
cession of ups and downs; and that flight does 
not consist in flapping of wings, but that at every 
beat of the wing the body soars or glides along, 
5 evidently without effort. The sea-gull is a good 
illustration. Another fascinating study to the 
boys was the use birds make of air currents, 
in rising, turning or tilting. 

Kite-flying, too, was a favorite pastime, so as 
10 to observe the best angle at which the air would 
lift the kite. The brothers read eagerly all they 
could And about scientists abroad, who were also 
striving to invent a heavier-than-air-machine. 

Finally, in 1900, they decided during their 
15 vacation to experiment with gliders. A glider is 
a kite-like apparatus with curved tail. Lying on 
it, one can float off from a high point. They 
selected a lonesome windy spot of land called 
Kitty Hawk, on the coast of North Carolina. 
20 Sandhills made splendid jumping-off places, and 
it was too fai away for spies to watch them. They 
tried many forms of gliders; studied the best angles 
to tilt them to air currents; then they designed 
their own. 

25 Thus for years they worked patiently, until from 
birds and kites and gliders and propellers and 
books, they were able to construct a machine 
with two sustaining wings or blades. They had 


learned where to apply the engine that could 
propel it at such an angle as would support the 
weight, and cause the air against which it was 
forced to act as lifting agent beneath the wings. 

This is not a technical description, so I will 
only add that they had difficulty in establishing 
the centre of gravity and in getting the right steer- 
ing gear, and other accessories. Intrepid adven- 
turers both, they risked everything — and won! 

For in 1903, Orville Wright made at Kitty 
Hawk a record flight in a gasoline plane; it was 
the first time in the history of the world when 
a heavier-than-air machine carrying a passenger 
raised itself by its own power into the sky, sailed 
away, and descended unharmed. It was in the 
air less than a minute, but later flights grew 
longer and longer. The airplane had arrived. 

In 1909, the brothers at Fort Myer proved 
to the Government that their invention was 
of value. President Taft was there with many 
officials and crowds of people. Orville Wright 
remained in the air one hour and nine minutes. 
On his descent. President Taft greeted him and 
thanked him in the name of the country for solv- 
ing the problem of the age. 

Next we glance at the part played by airplanes 
in the Great War. The Duke of Wellington 
nee said: 'Wictory belongs to the commander 


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20 

25 


434 


making the best guess about what is happening 
on the other side of the hiir’ — and nothing escapes 
the airplane. For example, at the beginning of 
the War, airplanes brought the information that 
5 Germans were pouring by millions into France. 
Without this knowledge they might have con- 
quered before the Allies realized their danger. 

Again, you remember that German zeppelins 
had been used as passenger ships, and now in 
10 feverish haste Germany sent them over as flying 
fortresses. They sped on, hurling hombs down 
on defenseless enemies, and terrifying and killing 
innocent women and little children. 

England and France were at first dazed, but 
15 soon made ready with airplanes, sea planes, listen- 
ing towers and searchlights to police coasts 
and cities, and the slightest onset was detected 
by these gallant watch-dogs. These smaller planes 
were superior to the clumsy monsters in climbing 
20 and swooping for attack. The Flying Corps’’ 
thus proved such a success that presently zep- 
pelin raiders gave up the fight. 

Airplanes, too, fought terrible battles in the 
clouds. You have doubtless read of the exploits 
25 of those daring aces who, even when encircled 
by destroyers, pounced down upon the enemy 
and overcame one foe after another. 

Aside from its part in modern warfare, a mar- 


435 


velous future is opening for aviation. It is 
prophesied that soon airplanes and dirigibles 
will be as common overhead as motors on the 
road. Congress is discussing police systems, spy 
laws, postal routes, charts, currents, fog signals, 
and other things to make air-travel easy and 
secure. Many aerial routes are being planned; 
some over mountains, deserts and polar regions, 
bringing places that are now inaccessible into 
commerce with the world. 

An air-trip across the Atlantic has been a 
dream of centuries. A short time ago three cour- 
ageous ^‘Knights of Emprise’’ blazed a new trail 
from the Western to the Eastern hemisphere. 

Four huge Naval Curtiss seaplanes were 
selected, propelled by the famous liberty motors, 
safeguarded with scientific precaution. Destroy- 
ers were to patrol the course from shore to shore. 
These seaplanes, called for short NC-1, NC-2, 
NC-3, NC-4, carried small crews. Their instruc- 
tions were to swing loose from their moorings and 
hop first to the Azores, thence to Portugal. 

Just after all had started, an Australian, 
Hawker by name, with his pilot Grieve, suddenly 
determined that England should have the honor 
of being first to cross the Atlantic. He had a 
Sopwith biplane with one engine, good for long 
quick flights but with slight chance for safety 


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20 

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436 


if anything happened in mid-ocean. With su- 
preme audacity, he and Grieve leaped into the 
air at Newfoundland, resolved to make a non- 
stop flight to Ireland. Far out at sea trouble was 
5 discovered with the radiator; so they flew towards 
a part of the ocean where ships might be en- 
countered, and there they spied ^‘Danish Mary’^ 
tramping along, and came down in front of her. 
Quick to act, she picked up the two aeronauts 
10 and plodded on her way to Denmark. 

The experiences of Towers of the NC-3 and 
Bellinger of the NC-1 were harrowing but 
they and their crews were finally landed at the 
Azores. Lieutenant Commander Read of the 
15NC-4 escaped the fogs and tumultuous seas. 
His sea plane alighted first at the Azores, then in 
Portugal, after a flight of between twenty-six and 
twenty-seven hours; coming down on May 27th, 
1919, near the spot where Christopher Columbus 
20 landed on his first return from the discovery of 
America. To Captain Read then is accorded the 
renown of first carrying the ''Stars and Stripes” 
in a seaplane from America to Europe. 

Three weeks later Captain Alcock and Lieu- 
25 tenant Brown, under a British flag, in a Vickers- 
Vimy bomber, made the first non-stop flight from 
Newfoundland to Ireland in sixteen hours and 
twelve minutes, arriving there June 16th, 1919. 


437 


The trip was without accident, but the experi- 
ences were terrible. For hours neither sun nor 
moon nor star was visible; during a gale the 
machine climbed and swooped and circled. These 
plucky aviators accomplished one of the most 5 
daring voyages aver undertaken by man. 

Still a third feat marks another advance in aerial 
navigation. For the R-34, a British lighter-than- 
air machine, one of the two largest dirigibles in 
the world, commanded by Major Scott, against lo 
odds of weather and failing gasoline, crossed the 
Atlantic from Europe to America in four and a 
half days, landing on July 6th, 1919. 

Three ocean flights have thus been made, 
proving anew the success of the inventions of is 
the Wrights and Montgolfiers. They mark the 
beginning of a new era, in which fleets of commerce 
are to sail through the air. Indeed, this opening 
up of air-travel is one of the most important hap- 
penings since Columbus discovered America. 20 
Read in his hydro-aeroplane, Alcock in his 
biplane, Scott in his dirigible, — which of these 
heroes will you call Columbus of the Air 

The spirit of adventure is never satisfied. 
We wonder who are to be the flying captains of 26 
the coming years to bring yet new inspirations, 
for as Elizabeth Newport Hepburn says: 

“They who venture ride a winged steed, 

And all the world is braver for the deed.” 


438 


Marshal Foch 

Among many heroes in the World^s Hall of Fame, 
Marshal Foch stands to-day one of the greatest 
of military commanders. Ferdinand Foch was 
shorn 1851, at ancient Tarbes, in the Pyrenees, 
a town set in the midst of the mountains, 
orchards, green fields, and tiny waterways. • 

His two brothers, sister, and himself, were taught 
from childhood to reverence the memory of 
10 Napoleon Bonaparte, who had made their grand- 
father a Chevalier of France, and to be like him, 
noble and brave. The religion taught Foch in 
his boyhood has been a lifelong inspiration. 
Often during the war, he has been seen kneeling 
15 alone in some little chapel, while thousands of 
guns were roaring in obedience to his orders. 

As the family moved from one part of France 
to another, Foch attended a number of schools. 
Always a faithful student, he loved best mathe- 
2 oniatics and military tactics and so decided to 
enter the army. At the outbreak of the Franco- 
Prussian War he was one of the enthusiastic 
young men who rushed to the colors, but he was 
mustered out without being in battle. Curiously 
25 enough, it was not until he was sixty-three years 
old, at the beginning of the Great War, that he 
was ever under fire. 

He studied at the Polytechnique in Paris. 


439 


Joffre was there, too, and both were heavy- 
hearted as the> walked about the city, torn and 
scarred from German bombardment. Foch re- 
solved then to make a study of the Franco-Prussian 
War and learn why the Germans had beaten the 5 
French. This must not happen again! 

In 1886, he entered the Superior School of 
War for the intensive training of officers, and 
in 1896, became head professor of military 
strategy, inspiring his pupils with ardor for their lo 
work. His method was to review the history of 
previous wars constantly, and with a map before 
him to trace the development of certain cam- 
paigns, and call upon his pupils to decide what 
should be done in special emergencies. He knew is 
that war is full of surprises which officers must 
be trained to meet; it is too late to learn on 
the battle-field. 

The wisdom of this method of training was 
afterwards borne out when the tactics of his 20 
lectures were used in actual fighting and when 
his officers proved their worth in action. 

Presently the Great War was on. This world 
conflagration had been kindled by three pistol 
shots, which on June 28th, 1914, had killed 25 
the Archduke Franz Josef, heir to the Austrian 
throne. The deed was done at Serajevo, in 
Bosnia, by a Serbian student, and Austria de- 


440 


termined to punish little Serbia, for she had long 
stood in the way of both Austria and Germany. 
Serbia would not submit and Russia held to 
Serbia; Germany backed Austria, and France and 
5 England prepared to help their Ally, Russia. 

Now Germany usjed this quarrel merely as an 
excuse to commence a War, for which she had 
for years been making ready. She wished to 
become mistress of the world. The result was 
10 one vast moving picture of nations struggling on 
land, in the air, on and under the sea. 

There was land fighting on both Eastern and 
Western fronts, besides separate campaigns in 
Asia and Africa, but as our subject is Marshal 
isFoch, we must confine our attention to the West- 
ern front where he commanded. 

Germany mobilized very rapidly. Her plan 
was first to put France out of action, attack 
and frighten England, conquer Russia, and then 
20 march to the East; accordingly, early in August, 
1914, three great armies advanced through Lux- 
embourg and Belgium, and through long, straight, 
poplar-lined roads and quaint-gabled towns of 
France, leaving in their wake tattered tree trunks 
25 and houses smashed to firewood. 

On September 6th, the Battle of the Marne 
commenced. General Joffre, supreme in com- 
mand, issued an order that the moment had 


441 


come for the French to turn and attack at all 
costs. Paris was only twenty miles away. The 
fate of France hung in the balance. 

Marshal Joffre placed General Foch at the 
centre of the French line to sustain the onset 5 
of the famous Prussian Guard/^ and for three 
days the Germans thrust back his army. A 
man of iron will, Foch believed that to make 
a surprise attack would be his best course, so he 
issued a heroic manifesto to his troops. It isio 
reported that he also sent this message to 
General Joffre: Situation excellent, my centre is 
broken, my right giving way, but lam attacking.’^ 

There was one point that Foch considered 
weak. It was at the German centre where two 15 
commands met. With lightning-like rapidity his 
army fell on this point and the enemies grappled. 
The Germans were suddenly hurled back and the 
Marshes of St. Gond became the tomb of the 
Prussian Guard.’’ It was after this victory 20 
that Marshal Joffre called General Foch the 
most brilliant strategist in Europe. 

With fresh activity the Germans were now 
beginning the race to the North Sea to threaten 
England by the Channel ports, and again to 25 
attack Paris. Belgian cities were falling and the 
Allies realized that they must co-operate more 
closely. Wise Marshal Joffre placed General 


442 


Foch in supreme control here. The German 
armies were five times as large as those of the 
Allies. In the two battles at Ypres, in the awful 
onslaught of shell and gas, again and again the 
5 Allies were hurled back. Flanders became but a 
blasted heath. No one can ever tell by what 
miracle of the spirit the ^Thin old line of Con- 
temptibles’’ held month after month, until armies 
were strengthened, and for a second time the 
10 Germans were thwarted. Foch splendidly co- 
operated with . the other generals, re-enforcing 
the British army, and coming into perfect com- 
radeship with' Sir John French and Sir Douglas 
Haig. 

15 Foch had further opportunity to work with 
General Haig in the Battle on the Somme and in 
the Verdun campaign of 1916 , where General 
P 6 tain won his spurs fulfilling the motto, ^^They 
shall not pass.’^ 

20 Temporary illness laid Foch aside but he 
was soon again at work. He was now placed 
over a committee of the General Staff to forecast 
future war problems. One of the principal sub- 
jects discussed was Italy, that had for two years 
25 been doing deeds of reckless valor in the moun- 
tains and valleys that separated her from the 
Austrians. There was, however, always the pos- 
sibility of a reaction, and Foch planned how in 


443 


an emergency English and French troops could 
be transported to help the Italians. When the 
catastrophe did come, all moved promptly and 
Foch had great honors heaped upon him. 

When his sixty-fifth birthday arrived, the age 
limit for army officers, he was not retired : instead 
his services were indefinitely retained. 

In the critical year 1917, we leave our hero 
for a moment to glance at other fields in this 
bewildering conflict. Russia had completely col- 
lapsed; Germany had been thwarted in the 
West, but she yet held most of Belgium and 
many miles of French territory; she had crushed 
Serbia; was advancing into Russia; and with 
the aid of her Allies, Austria, Bulgaria and 
Turkey, she was moving further and further into 
Asia to complete her Bagdad railroad, intending to 
push on even to India and China. Never was 
such a far-flung battle-line — never so many 
actors — never a drama moving so furiously. 

Marshal Joffre, having reached the age limit, 
had retired; as a man of wise decision, a soldier 
of masterly defense, a builder of fortifications, 
he was everywhere venerated; but it was begin- 
ning to be felt that the Allies must adopt 
offensive instead of defensive strategy. Foch, 
being master of the former, was appointed, in 
1918, Generalissimo over the Allied armies. 


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15 

20 

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444 


This year had opened with a certainty that 
the Germans were preparing a gigantic offensive 
on the Western front. The Allies were not sur- 
prised therefore when on March 21st, 1918, 
sLudendorff, with an army of one and a half 
million, started a clock-like advance. As it forged 
ahead, the mighty, grey mass resolved itself 
into seven armies. The aims were the same as 
before — to sweep on to Paris, and the Channel 
10 ports for the invasion of England — all to be done 
with frantic haste, before United States troops 
arrived in sufficient force to assist the Allies. 

The United States had entered the War a year 
earlier, but preparations had been slow, for the 
15 battle-field was three thousand miles away. Now 
the Allies begged us to hurry, and it seemed 
a miracle of transportation that in a short time 
two millions of our soldiers were ^^Over There.’’ 
General Pershing, in presenting his army to 
20 General Foch, said: Infantry, Cavalry, Aviation 
— all are yours — use as you will.” 

The Germans advanced with drastic recklessness, 
and there were grim days for the Allies. At first 
they could only push back but Foch sat tight 
25 and held his reserves. Though some doubted, 
even thefn he had his strategy well in hand. 

Foch believed in acting promptly at a crucial 
moment. He chose Bastille Day, July 14th. He 


445 


had heard that as this was a French holiday, the 
Germans had planned an onset, so instead of 
celebrating, his troops made ready. The Ger- 
mans were to move at one hour after midnight; 
Foch determined to strike one hour earlier. 
All the appointed time, French guns boomed and 
the surprised enemy faced a formidable barrage. 
A little later the second arresting battle on the 
Marne opened. The ^‘Man of Vision” seized the 
initiative, and held it to the end of the War. 

The Allies pushed forward at Chateau Thierry 
where the Germans had thrust out a mighty 
salient. Here each soldier fought as if he 
alone had to win the battle. The United States 
troops pitched in with the zeal that interpreted 
an order to hold a line as an order to advance. 
As a result the salient was flattened, the victory 
won, and General Foch became Marshal of France. 

This battle was typical of later ones. Whether 
the attack was on a fortress, in the trenches, 
or through the wire-laced Argonne Forest, all 
Foch’s orders ended — Without delay!” His 
method was to strike at a certain point; the Ger- 
mans would give way, then call in reserves, and 
' again turn to face the enemy, but Marshal Foch 
. never attacked twice at the same point. At his 
headquarters he kept a big war map and while 
fighting one battle, was planning another. 


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15 

20 

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446 


Here are a few passages from his Decalogue” 
for his troops: ‘‘Tell the truth squarely, face the 
music, and take your punishment like a man;” 
“Do your best to keep your head clear and 
5 cool, your body clean and comfortable, your feet 
in good condition; for you think with your head, 
fight with your body, and move with your feet;” 
“Be of good cheer and high courage, shirk 
neither work nor danger, suffer in silence, and 
10 cheer the comrade at your side with a smile.” 

What seemed many battles during the last 
months of the War was only one grand onset 
directed by the one great War-Strategist. .The 
Germans retreated until in the autumn the 
15 Allies had regained all they had lost, and there 
was no longer a “Hindenburg Line.” They 
were successful also in the East where Austria, 
Bulgaria, and Turkey gave up the conflict. 

Indeed, in the year 1918, the Allied soldiers^ 
20 cry was “On to Berlin!” When the defiant 
Ludendorff discovered the “unwhippableness” 
of the Allies, it is no wonder that he retired 
and that the Germans begged for peace. Foch 
could not at once give this, but to avert further 
25 destruction, he granted an armistice, which means 
just “a stay of arms.” The terms were humiliat- 
ing, but on November 11th, 1918, the German 
delegates signed them at Marshal Foehns head- 


447 


quarters; and everywhere there was heartfelt 
rejoicing. 

Then a Council was selected to arrange a Treaty 
of Peace. This was headed by diplomatic rep- 
resentatives from different nations, and while 
the Council debated intricate problems, Marshal 
Foch constantly advised in regard to just terms; 
he also prepared an Allied armament, hundreds 
of thousands strong, to encircle Germany in case 
the Germans refused the pact. 

And when the army was ready to go forward 
at a moment^s notice, and the successful British 
fleet to speed to German waters — the Germans 
decided to accept, but protestingly, the Treaty 
that had been formulated. 

The magnificent ^^Hall of Mirrors’’ at Versailles 
was selected for the signing. In this historic 
Palace, forty-eight years before, Bismarck had pro- 
claimed Germany victorious over France and 
united as a splendid Empire. 

Here on June 28th, 1919, assembled delegates 
of many races and creeds; Clemenceau, Presi- 
dent of the Council, sat at the head of the im- 
mense horseshoe table and called on the dele- 
gates to sign. Two representatives of the Ger- 
man Republic made unconditional surrender to 
the Allies. Twenty-six Allied nations also took 
part. The ceremony was solemn rather than 


5 

10 

15 

20 

25 


448 


spectacular, but the moment will be famed in 
history. 

We can imagine that the hearts of France^s 
redoubtable Tiger,” Clemenceau — and of Lloyd 
5 George and President Wilson — were full of joy 
and gratitude, as they received the tremendous 
ovation of the struggling, cheering mass. 

Marshal Foch was greeted by a storm of 
applause. What must have been his sensations 
10 as he watched the proceedings that crowned his 
four years^ fight for right and justice! 

The world stands on tiptoe of expectation to 
know what next, for another gigantic task is 
just before Marshal Foch, to enforce this peace. 
15 We have followed him thus far, let us watch his 
future career. 

His life holds a message for every boy and 
girl. It is a challenge to patient, persevering 
effort. Whenever tasks seem difficult, Remem- 
20 ber the Marne and Ferdinand Foch!” 


Our book has guided us from Confucius to Mar- 
shal Foch. We have passed through many centuries 
and have found that there are many true Heroes of 
History.” We have briefly traced the lives of some 
25 of these. In recalling them, which hero do you 
honor most, and which do you think has been the 
greatest inspiration and blessing to his country? 













LIBRARY OF CX)NGRESS 


